Common diseases in Colombia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Common diseases in Colombia - Essay Example   This is followed closely by vector borne diseases especially malaria, dengue and yellow fever. Statistics from CIA and CDC indicate that the most predominant of these diseases affecting both locals and travellers (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). Risk factorsThe risk factors of this disease are the food and water borne diseases due to contaminated food and water. Personal hygiene and sanitation is not emphasized upon in this nation hence the reason they use contaminated water especially from the Pacific Ocean and their food is contaminated. How it is diagnosed Typhoid whose mortality rate reaches even 20% of those diagnosed is spread through food and water contamination. The sick patient experiences high fever that is not sustainable and tests of the blood cells indicate an increase in the white blood cells. The S. typhi bacteria are also analyzed in the urine test which is carried out after the first week of fever. Typhoid is treated using a dose of strong antibiotics such as levofloxacin which clears up the symptoms. Intravenous hydration and the use of antipyretics can also be employed. This is in addition to ensuring proper nutrition and close medical check-ups to monitor treatment. Education on lifestyle modificationIn order to prevent typhoid, eating of washed food and boiled water is important. Thoroughly cooking food as well as peeling fruits is also necessary. For the travellers, typhoid vaccine is recommended before travelling to this nation in addition to not eating food sold on the streets.

Drug abuse program Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Drug abuse program - Assignment Example In the past two decades, many measures have been taken by the government in order to improve the delivery of health care services particularly with reference to the drug abuse treatment and psychological health improvement in the Los Angeles County. People addicted to substance abuse that also suffer from mental problems are said to have dual diagnosis. Measures have been taken to increase the access of dually diagnosed people to medical care and coordinate the required services for such individuals. To make the system more efficient, it was imperative that the current status of the delivery of service was thoroughly researched. In order to achieve that, a study was conducted in which the administrators and the treatment staff of the programs based on substance abuse and mental health, who served the dually diagnosed patients were involved. A total of 15 administrators and 99 staff members considered the accessibility of the dually diagnosed patients to health care services and the c oordination of health care services much lower in comparison to 10 mental health administrators and 136 staff members, who gave a higher rating on each of the two factors (Grella, Gil-Rivas, and Cooper, 2004). In order to improve the coordination in the delivery of mental health services in substance abuse treatment and mental health improvement programs, the divergence in the concepts of the administrators needs to be lessened first because efficient working of the system requires them to work in close collaboration with one another.

Modification of the 4-Quinolone Scaffold

Modification of the 4-Quinolone Scaffold Discovery: Quinolones are antibacterial agents that are of major importance in the antibacterial field as the can act as the model antibiotic. This is due to their broad range of activity, the high potency and good bioavailability with both intravenous and oral administration possible. This is coupled with high serum levels and a distribution within tissues that specifies concentration levels and results in, theoretically, few occurrences of unwanted side effects.1 The timeline for the development of this class of antibacterial agents begins with the isolation of the bactericidal naphthyridine, nalidixic acid, in the 1960s by George Lesher as the first synthetic quinolone antibiotic. Nalidixic acid is illustrated in Figure 1 below and is a by-product that was isolated from a chloroquine synthesis.2 Figure 1: Nalidixic Acid The clinical use for naldixic acid was to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by gram negative organisms. The successive generations of quinolones had activity against both gram negative and gram positive bacteria as well as anaerobic bacteria. This development lead to fluoroquinolones which are latest in quinolone antimicrobials. The clinical uses for the quinolones today include respiratory tract infections, bacterial meningitis and gastrointestinal infections as well as the historical use of treating UTIs. The development of fluoroquinolones resulted in a more extended spectrum of activity and improved pharmacokinetics then the first generation of quinolones.3,4 Structure: The general quinolone class of molecules is comprised of 4-quinolone and 1,8-napthyridine ring structures. The naphthyridine ring structures differ slightly from the 4-quinolone core due to the presence of two nitrogen atoms in the rings of the molecule (Figure 2). The substituents R5, R6, R7 and R1 were added to improve the activity of the quinolone core before the development of highly potent fluoroquinolones.1 Figure 2: General Structure of 4-Quinolones The first fluoroquinolone to be developed was Flumequine; illustrated in Figure 3. It had a fluoro-group at the 6 position and was the first compound to show that modifications of the quinolone core could results in improved activity against the gram-positive bacteria that nalidixic acid had no effect on.1 Figure 3: The first fluoroquinolone- Flumequine Mechanism of Action: Inhibition of bacterial DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II) and topoisomerase IV is achieved by quinolones. These enzymes play a vital role in the uncoiling of DNA. DNA gyrase acts as the target in gram negative microbes and topoisomerase IV as the target in gram positive microbes for quinolone activity. The widely-accepted mechanism of action is that quinolones bind to complexes, formed between DNA and one of the enzymes, to generate a Quinolone-DNA-Enzyme complex that inhibits DNA replication. The binding of quinolones and topoisomerase is enabled by a water-metal ion bridge. The inhibition is bacteriostatic as replication is reversible.   Eventually apoptosis occurs due to the fragmentation of the DNA ends of the complex. This results in bactericidal inhibition. The most common form of resistance to the quinolones is due to specific mutations in the topoisomerase II and IV that interfere with the water-metal ion bridge interaction.2,3 Development: Quinolones are grouped into generations depending the activity of the molecules. The first generation showed activity against gram negative bacteria that caused UTIs. The second generation showed enhanced activity against gram negative bacteria and improved activity against gram positive. This enabled the list of conditions that quinolones could treat to expand. This generation displayed improved pharmacokinetics; due to the use of a C7-piperdinyl substituent. The third generation provided improvement in efficacy in inhibiting gram positive and anaerobic pathogens. 3,5 The fourth generation of drugs observed dramatically increased activity against DNA gyrase and gram positive microbes, improved pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. The major changes were the addition the fluoro-group at the C-6 position and a ring substituent at C-7. Norfloxacin (1), second generation, was the first broad spectrum quinolone with ciprofloxacin (2) the first quinolone to have activity observed beyond the treatment of UTIs.2 Currently, Garenoxacin (3), fourth generation, is of interest due to its distinct carbon-carbon bond at position C7 and its broad spectrum of activity.3 Figure 4:Generations of quinolone drugs. Three modified quinolone cores have acted as templates for drugs that are on the commercial market. The cores were 4-oxo-1,4-dihydroquinolone (4), 7-oxo-2,3-dihydro-7H-pyrido-[1,2,3-d,e]-1,4-benzoxazine (5) and 4-oxo-1,4-dihydro-[1,8]-naphthyridine (6). These selected cores are illustrated in Figure 5.3 Figure 5: Cores used as templates for commercial drugs Retrosynthesis: Scheme 1: Retrosynthesis of 4-Quinolone core6 A carbon-carbon disconnection between the ketone and the aromatic ring, the reverse would be a Friedel-Crafts reaction.   The double bond is opened and the hydroxyl group that is added is converted to a carbonyl group. The final disconnection, N-C, results in the starting materials; a keto ester and the substituted aniline. Synthesis: Several synthetic approaches have been taken to generate the 4-quinolone core. The Gerster-Hayakwa and Chu-Mitscher reactions are used specifically for the synthesis of the drug Levofloxacin. The Chu-Li route was established primarily for 9-cyclopropylpyrimidinones. The Gould-Jacobs reaction, Grohe-Heitzer cycloacylation and Conrad-Limpach-Knorr are appropriate methods of synthesising the generic 4-quinolone core.3 The Conrad-Limpach-Knorr synthesis will generate quinolones but this reaction will give different products depending of the whether it is kinetically or thermodynamically controlled. Aniline and 3-keto ester are mixed and at room temp the keto group joins the nitrogen of the aniline giving an enamino ester (kinetic product) and cyclisation at 250 °C results in a 4-quinolone. Thermodynamically controlling this reaction, by carrying it out at 140 °C, results in an amido-ketone dominating regardless of the less reactive ester on the keto ester being the centre of the first nucleophile attack. Ring closure results in a 2-quinolone.7 Scheme 2: Conrad-Limpach-Knorr Synthesis (kinetically controlled) As the substrate for the cyclisation needs to be the high-energy tautomer and cyclisation causes loss of aromaticity in the ring, solvents with high boiling points are generally used in this synthesis.8 The reactions are encouraged by electron-donating substituents in the aromatic ring including methoxy or amino groups. These give increased yields in the condensation and ring closure steps. A CF3 group can act as an acceptor at C-4.9 The short reaction sequence limits possibility of loss of yield. Rational Drug Design: Illustrated in Scheme 3 is the process of rational drug design. Computational screening is used to identify the target and generate the lead compound. This is modified considering the biological aspects, the 3D structure, the QSAR and reactivity of the compound. This generates a new lead which is optimised and put forward for preclinical trial. Scheme 3: Rational Drug Design Process10 Nilsen et al. used endochin as a lead for optimisation in a rational drug design study. The target selected was the multiple stages of the life cycle of malaria. Endochin is potent against malaria but is not active in vivo due to rapid and extensive metabolisation. Optimisation was required to form endochin-like quinolones (ELQ) that retained the activity of endochin but were biologically active. The aims for optimisation was to improve metabolic stability and aqueous solubility as well as eradicate cross-resistance.11 Figure 6: Structural Representation of Endochin The EQLs were synthesised by converting the quinolones to quinolines, followed by nucleophilic displacement. The quinoline undergoes Suzuki-Miyaura coupling with a boronic ester and finally the protecting group is removed (Scheme 4 A). An OCF3 group was also added to the side chain for further optimisation (Scheme 4 B). Scheme 4: Synthesis of ELQ An orally active class of quinolones were synthesised; 4(1H)-quinolone-3-diarylethers. The initial lead, ELQ-233 (Figure 7: ELQ-233Figure 7), displayed low nano-molar IC50 values. The optimisation step was to introduce an aryl group at C-3. A lipophilic diphenylether side chain was used as it had been previously reported as integral in other antimalarial drugs. This was to work with the methyl group at C-2 to cause out of plane movement of the sterically large aromatic ring, altering the à Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ãƒ Ã¢â€š ¬ stacking from the numerous H-bonds. This variation would not be perused as ELQ-233 was equipotent to endochin. Figure 7: ELQ-233 Due to the success of adding a fluoro group to the quinolone, to further build on the optimisation of endochin, a fluorine was added at C-6 on a second optimised molecule (7) along with a methoxy group at C-7 (as is in the endochin structure); illustrated in Figure 8.11 The methoxy group is a useful substituent due to its lipophilic and hydrophilic components in close proximity. Figure 8: Illustration of Compound 7 However, both ELQ-233 and 7 were metabolically unstable and therefore did not fulfil the optimisation requirements. Table 1: Values obtained for the optimised molecules Compound cLogP EC50 (nm) Endochin 3.35 3.8 ELQ-233 3.70 8.4 7 3.73 40 8 5.66 2.2 Further derivatives were generated and the pattern that emerged indicated that the substitution pattern on the aromatic ring influenced the reactivity with malaria. This result led to the rational design of further ELQ derivatives. Straight-forward reactions were continued to be used. The boronic ester with a varying diarylether side chain undergoes palladium mediated coupling with the quinolone then a demethylation occurs using hydrobromic acid to give the desired product. Repositioning the OCF3 group to the side chain increased the efficacy and the metabolic stability. The compounds that was found to be metabolically stable and potent had a chloro-group at C-6 and OCH3 ­at C-7. Figure 9: Structural representation of compound 8 Although compound 8 was the most potent compound, the high logP value is a disadvantage as it does not follow Lipinskis Rule of Five which is the basis for most developed drugs. To improve solubility and allow for lower dosages of 8, bioisoteres of the side chain were employed. The OCF3 was replaced by CF, Cl and F by Nielson et al. and displayed subnanomolar activity. Other options would be to double the terminal OCF3 group, double the substituents on the diaryl side chain, convert the diphenyl ether side chain to a dipyridine ether side chain or replace a phenyl ring in the side chain with a cyclopropane group. Phenyl rings can be replaced by a heteroaromatic ring or a saturated ring to improve efficacy, lipophilicity and specificity of binding. The introduction of a pyridine ring should reduce the metabolism of the phenyl ring and toxicity of metabolites.12 In heterocycles, metabolism can be more complicated with hetero-atoms being oxidized and/or ring opening reactions possible- slowing metabolism. Cyclopropane was explored as derivative of the phenyl ring resulting in compounds with reduced molecular weights and lower lipophilicities. It also limits the conformations available and increase yields of ELQs.11 Scheme 5 below are the same coupling reactions that are stated by Nielson et al. but with the suggested changes to further improve the lea d. Caution must be taken when adding substituents to the side chain so that Lipinskis rule of five is obeyed; there must be no more than 5 hydrogen bond donors or 10 hydrogen bond acceptors and the molecule should be below 500 Da. Scheme 5: Suggested further optimised lead molecules Rational drug design is an advantageous modification method as it is a streamline process when compared with SAR or QSAR as there is no trial and error, all leads and derivatives are prepared having been predicted by computational means previously. The computational aspect allows for all compounds and potential targets to be envisaged in 3D before they are synthesized. This computed information is then stored on large databases which can assist future drug development work. Rational drug design can be an expensive technique as a specialized team is required with knowledge in biology, chemistry and computer science. Costs rise due to payment of wages for the team and the specialized equipment and computer software that is vital. Although the computational aspect of this method is beneficial it can also be a disadvantage as not all predicted compounds can be synthesized and if the compounds are synthesized they may not act as predicted when in vivo.   Specifically, in this ratio nal drug design study, the reactions utilised readily available reagents that were also inexpensive. They were straight-forward reactions that gave high yields and could be scaled up. These are vital as the cost of antimalarial drugs must be kept down so that all people can afford to access it.11 Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR): SAR studies examine how the structure of the molecule effects the activity. SAR considers structural characteristics and relates them the activity therefore it is necessary to have a well characterized database to compared the results against. The basic principle of SAR, that structure determines properties and reactivities in a biological system, is of importance when determining toxicological properties. This is of huge significance for quinolone development as they must be nontoxic in vivo while remaining bacteriosidal.13 Figure 10: Areas SAR Studies consider13 These studies examine which modifications are possible to the core ( Figure 11) and which substituents cannot be modified without negatively interfering with the activity and potency of the drug.   There can be qualitative and quantitative aspects to these studies. The quantitative considerations are part of a quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) which will be discussed later. Figure 11: Quinolone core positions for the SAR study Table 2: Important Positons on the Quinolone core-SAR Study results14 Position Influence On: Preferred substituent: Effect of substituent: 1 The pharmacokinetics and has control on overall potency. Cyclopropyl increase activity against gram negative microbes 5 Activity against gram-positive bacteria. NH2 and CH3 moiety improve activity against gram-positive bacteria 7 Spectrum of activity and pharmacokinetics. 5/6 membered N heterocycle (aminopyrrolidines and piperazines) Alkyl group Aminopyrrolidines: increase activity against gram-positive bacteria Piperazines: increase activity against gram-negative bacteria. Alkyl: enhance gram- positive potency and lengthen the serum half-life 8 Pharmacokinetics and specific activity on anaerobes. CF, CCl and COMe improve activity against anaerobic bacteria. alter specific interaction of the agent in vivo. SAR studies reveal that a hydrogen at R2 is preferred. Any larger moiety would likely cause steric hindrance with the adjacent carboxyl group at C-3 and the oxygen at C-4. These substituents are vital for activity as these positions are where binding to DNA bases occur before the sites are made available for other hydrogen bonding to proceed by DNA gyrase. A small molecule is best for potency at R6. This is usually a fluorine group in later generations of quinolones as it produces molecules of between 5 to 100 times greater potency that when a hydrogen is positioned at R6.14 Ciprofloxacin (Figure 12) is one of the original patented quinolone anti-bacterial agents. It is first generation as it has moderate activity towards gram negative bacteria, poor pharmacokinetics and poor bioavailability. Figure 12: Structural representation of Ciprofloxacin However, using the results of the SAR, Ciprofloxacin can be further optimized. Scheme 6 utilizes straight-forward reactions to attach an -NH2 moiety to the core at positon 5 where the SAR study indicates it has the greatest influence. Firstly, nitration of the aromatic ring occurs, followed by a reduction of the nitro group to an aniline with palladium on carbon. Scheme 6: Further optimisation based on SAR Study Results The new lead is still in agreement with the SAR results as the carboxyl and oxygen are present at C-3 and C-4 respectively. The preferred substituent as stated in Table 2 are also used throughout the reaction scheme; the piperazine is at position 7, the fluoro group at positon 6 and the cyclopropyl group at positon 1. These substituents can positively influence the spectrum of activity the potency and the overall pharmacokinetics of the molecule. The addition of extra hydrogen bond acceptors/donors must be limited so as not to disobey Lipinskis rule of five by having more than 5 hydrogen bond donors or 10 hydrogen bond acceptors. These reactions, like the rational drug design reactions, utilize readily available, generally inexpensive reagents which is important to keep the cost of the anti-malarial drug down. Palladium is an exception as it is a rare metal but cheaper alternatives could be used for this step such as Raney Nickel although this generates intermediates before the aniline is formed unlike the direct formation when the palladium catalyst is used.15 SAR studies can represent molecules as 2D, atoms and bonds, or 3D, steric effects and electrostatics. 3D is best for when the receipt-mediated mechanism is known. Successful SAR studies also need appropriate methods of analysis which depend on whether quantitative or qualitative analysis is being perused and if the mechanism is known. The ideal SAR model should have adequate molecules for fair statistical analysis, a wide range of activities and an even distribution of molecules in each compound class. This model is rarely found when toxicology is considered.13 Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR): The basic principle of QSAR is that similar molecules have adequate similar mechanistic elements so that a common rate-determining step is shared among them and that they have comparable energy requirements for activity. This principle is taken further and the assumption is that differences in reaction rates results in differences in activity or potency.13 Lipophilic, electronic and steric effects are considered in QSAR studies. QSAR provides an equation that quantifies the SAR and allows for predictions about which property has an important role in the distribution/ mechanism of the drug. Predictions cut down on the volume of analogues to be synthesised. Equations are only applicable to compounds of the same structural class. Outliers indicate when a feature is important and can produce new leads. The QSAR may not give accurate predictions as the parameters have covariance on each other; the predicted model may vary in vivo.6 Lipophilicity/Hydrophobicity: This can be considered as the lipophilicity of the molecule or the lipophilicity of the substituents attached. Partition Coefficient, P, is the parameter associated with the lipophilicity of the molecule and is measured by Equation 1. Equation 1: Representation of the lipophilicity parameter. Solvents chosen to represent the Central nervous system The activity of a molecule can be related to the P value as a molecule must be able to cross membranes and be transported through the body to its target site which is dependent on its lipophilicity. Varying substituents on the core can alter the P value in whichever direction is more beneficial for the activity of the molecule. From SAR studies increased quinolone activity occurs when a lipophilic substituent, such as a halogen, is attached at C-6. Simple reactions, including nitration and chlorination (Scheme 7), will add these substituents to the core, again using cheap and readily available reagents. In general, increasing lead hydrophobicity increases activity (Figure 13). This does not go to infinity as there is a point at which the lead is to hydrophobic to be transported in vivo.6 LogP should not be more than 5 per Lipinskis rule of 5; high enough to bind, low enough to be released. Scheme 7: Addition of lipophilic substituents to the quinolone core to alter the P value Figure 13: Linear relationship between biological activity 1/C and lipophilicity6 Electronics: This parameter can influence ionisation and polarity which alters how a drug passes through a membrane or how strongly it binds to a receptor. Hammett substitution constant (à Ã†â€™) is the measure of the electron withdrawing or donating ability for substituents on an aromatic ring. à Ã†â€™ affects the equilibrium and the value is dependent on induction/resonance effects and whether the substituent is para or meta directing. Ortho is not considered due to sterics.6 Table 3:Substituents that can alter the à Ã†â€™ parameter Electron Donating Group (para): Electron Withdrawing Group (meta): -NH2 -NO2 -OH -CONH2 Halogen -CN Generally, electron-withdrawing substituent, positive à Ã†â€™ values, increase activity (Table 3). Simple reactions like those illustrated in Scheme 7 are used to attach the à Ã†â€™-influencing substituents to the quinolone. Sterics: Drug molecules must approach and successfully bind to a receptor and the sterics of the molecule can alter this approach. Bulk can result in nonbinding as the drug is sterically hindered from approaching the target site. It can also limit the available conformations so that only the most efficient arrangement binds to the receptor. Table 4: Parameters for measurements of steric effects6 Measure of Steric Effect: Key Feature: Other Factors: Tafts Steric Factor (Es) Quantifies steric feature of substituents Limited to use on certain substituents Molar Refractivity (MR) Measures volume occupied by atom(s) Corrects for ease of polarisation. Verloop Steric Parameter Computer programme calculates steric values For use with any substituent Using the quinolone core, modifications can be made so that the sterics prevent rapid metabolisation of a drug molecule in vivo which will extend its half-life and lead to better activity. Binding the quinolone to a large side chain restricts it from binding to smaller sites which Nilsen et al. conclude lead to better selectivity.11 Scheme 8 illustrates the addition of bulky side chains that can give better selectivity as they will only approach the sites they fit into. Furthermore, the double bond linkage and aromatic rings restrict the conformation that the molecule can adopt, increasing selectivity. Bulky side chains can prevent rapid metabolism occurring. When adding bulk, caution must be taken to ensure the molecule stays below the recommended 500 Da. Scheme 8: Reactions to alter the sterics of a quinolone core16 3D-QSAR: 3D-QSAR considers the relative spatial arrangement of model compounds and aims to correlate the features across molecules that affect activity and are required for ligand binding. 3D-QSAR studies the geometry, pharmacophore and molecular field. Key assumptions of 3D-QSAR13: The model compound and not its metabolite cause the biological response. The studied conformation is bioactive. Solvent effects are not considered The system is in equilibrium All compounds bind in the same manner to the one target. 3D-QSAR puts compounds with common configurations in a 3D grid, calculates the interaction and tabulates the results. An equation is then created based on the relationship between the calculations and the reported values. This verifies QSAR results. Conformers are superimposed to display the common ligand-binding orientation to the receptor. Probe atoms calculate steric and electrostatic fields.13 3D-QSAR studies on 1,3,5-triazine, quinolone derivatives, determined less bulky groups on the heteroatom ring, more bulk on the aro

Martin Luther King Jr. Essay -- American History

Martin Luther King Jr. On the first day of school, sophomore year, my history teacher presented me with the question of "Who is your hero?" I didn’t have a hero, and until then I hadn’t thought about the subject. Later in the year, my eyes caught a quotation from Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. on the bulletin board which stated somewhat to this effect, "Do not merely be a thermometer that records the ideas and principles of popular opinion; but rather a thermostat that transforms the mores of society." Out of all the quotes that had been posted over the year, it was this one that caught my attention and captured my emotion. When I would read it, I felt as if something inside me had been sparked. Little did I know that this man whom I had come to know for the "I have a dream speech" and civil rights would come to be my hero. After reading "Pilgrimage to Nonviolence" while studying the civil rights movement I became intrigued in the beliefs of Martin Luther King Jr. Nonviolence seemed like such a radical concept to me, yet I found myself agreeing with every point that he made. The va...

Analyze the impact of geography and economic Essay

Geography and economic activity often determine the future of any civilization. Here, one is forced to admit that most of the obvious differences among the ancient civilization can be drawn based on their geographical location and, of course, their economic history (Wells, 561). Let us take the example of Roman and Mesopotamian civilizations. Roman civilization is centered on a powerful city situated on the Capitoline Hills. In the beginning of Rome’s history, most of the people were either farmers or small-scale traders. When Rome expanded into central and southern Italy at the beginning of the Punic Wars, its policy-makers were faced with this fundamental question, â€Å"How do we protect our trade interests? † The answer was expansionism. Rome acquired territories in the East either by conquest or forced capitulation of kingdoms (for example, Bithynia and Pergamum). Rome’s economic interests led to the expansion of the Roman Republic. When this republic was becoming larger and larger, the need for a more despotic, efficient form of government was becoming a reality. From 88 B. C. to 31 B. C. , the Republic became an avenue of power struggle between powerful public officials. (Such necessity was never a probabilistic tendency, rather a deterministic one) Rome, in 100 B. C. was not yet a center of trade and commerce. As such, only by expansion can Rome protect its economic interests (Wells, 585). The Mesopotamian civilization is situated on the so-called ‘Fertile Crescent’ or the junction of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers. Its geographical location was suited for trade and commerce. In fact, it was the center of trade in the Middle East, controlling the flow of goods from the ‘Far East’ to the Pillars of Hercules (Toynbee, 266). Hence, most of the city-states founded on the Fertile Crescent were prosperous and relatively peaceful. Wars usually occurred as a means of settling disputes among rulers of city-states. Expansionism was never an important issue. Unlike Rome, most of the city-states preferred to negotiate rather than engage in costly wars. For example, when Uruk defeated a powerful city-state in 1560 B. C. , it was faced with an important fundamental question, â€Å"Is it necessary to occupy the city-state? † The answer was an obvious no. Occupation only entailed increased cost and resentment from the local population. It was more rational to keep the city under constant political surveillance than to actually occupy it. Only at the time of Sargon that was political view radically altered. 2. What do surviving works (art or architecture) tell us about culture? Compare pagan art to Christian art and Greek art to Roman art. Art and architecture define the ideology and prevailing beliefs of particular historical periods (Zaide, 419). Historical periods here do not simply refer to space and time, rather to actual events conforming to specific ideologies (Zaide, 420). Art and architecture also define the way of life of particular groups of people located in specific milieu. Hence, one may argue that works of art generally reflect the exterior and interior tendencies of people; that is, works of art define the psychology and behavior of peoples. For example, the painting ‘The Night watch† (by Rembrandt) reflects the ideological resistance of the Dutch nation against Spanish imperialism. Christian art is essentially different from pagan art in two respects. First, Christian art rests on the twin principles of equality (not to be confused with the ‘equality’ espoused by the French Revolution) and simplicity (Zaide, 549). Early Christian art depicted the symbolic reign of Christ on earth; this is symbolic of the simplicity of Christian life. During the reign of Constantine the Great, Christian art (although still rests on the concept of simplicity) became the emblem of imperial authority and the Divine Trinity (note that early Christian art only depicted the image of Christ). Constantine the Great ordered the construction of great basilicas to proclaim this new interpretation of Christian art. Second, Christian art centered on a single set of ideology. Christian art and philosophy centered on the nature of the Divine Trinity, the simplicity of Christian life, and the majesty of the Roman Church. Pagan art was a ‘hot spot’ of eastern, Greek, and Roman religious philosophy. Pagan art was simply the result of the mixture of pagan philosophies. Roman art is different from Greek art in two respects. First, Roman art was generally a modification of Greek art. The invention of concrete during the 1st century A. D. greatly advanced Roman art and architecture. For example, the simple amphitheatre of the Greeks was transformed into a colosseum. Concrete allowed the construction of more complex structures. Second, Greek art was essentially religious in character (this is assertion is debatable for some historians). Roman art and architecture was a mixture of religious and political philosophies. Works Cited Toynbee, Arnold. A History of the World. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1964. Wells, Herbert. An Outline of History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947. Zaide, Gregorio. History of Art. Manila: Manila Publishing Company.

Abstract Apple Inc

Abstract Apple Inc. is one of the world’s largest technology companies dealing in computers and consumer electronic products. Founded in 1976 by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniack Apple is now a multinational corporate empire who recently boasted a $15. 7 billion in revenue in the third quarter of 2010.This study’s objective is to carry out a strategic analysis of Apple Company using different analysis tools. The study aims to cover factors that exist in its internal and external environment and also evaluate how the company utilizes its resources to maintain competitive advantage in the market.Three different descriptive strategic tools will be used in this study includes SWOT Analysis, PESTLE Analysis and Resource Based View (RBV). The findings from these analyses are used in making conclusions on the study question.From this study it’s clear that Apples extensive brand equity, strong leadership of CEO Steve Jobs, Innovative research & development, fashionable & tre ndy image of its products and the strong branding & customer loyalty forms a great part of its strengths.However this study highlights the rushing of products into the market followed by quick product recalls and the many legal cases the company has been involved in as the major threats. Apple’s ‘iphone’ is the company’s attempt to utilize the available opportunity resulting from the increasing demand for ‘smart phones’.Apple Inc is threatened by poor quality output from its suppliers and the tight market for personal computers. The study recommends product testing be speeded up and the company to find alternatives ways to settle these legal cases to ensure Apple Inc maintains its competitive advantage in the technology market.

Historical Events essays

Historical Events essays In the Baroque Period, there were many changes in belief, science, art, and music. Up to this period, the church controlled everything. The church had an influence over everything. This period could be described as the period when people start to change their ways. Now I will tell you about some of the very important people of this period. Sir Isaac Newton was a very important person in our history. Newton discovered how gravity and inertia work together to keep planets in their regular orbit in space. Also, Newton had a very mathematical mind. He was always solving math equations that had others baffled. Plus, he made new equations, which have helped our society by giving us better education and technology. That is enough about Sir Isaac Newton, now I am going to tell you about architects. There were many famous architects during this period. The first architect I will mention is Carlo Maderno. Maderno is famous for the Santa Susanna building in Rome, Italy. Giacomo Della Porta was famous for the Vignola building also in Rome, Italy. The last one I have to tell you about is Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Bernini did the Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi that also stands in Rome, Italy. I am sure there were many other architects than what I mentioned in this paragraph, but these are a few of the standout architects of the Baroque Period. The Baroque Period was very much a changing time and turning point for culture in Europe and the colonies. There will probably never be a period like this again. ...

Coming of Age Novels Essays

Coming of Age Novels Essays Coming of Age Novels Essay Coming of Age Novels Essay Coming of age novels, Cold Sassy Tree and To Kill a Mockingbird introduce readers to 14 year old Will Tweedy of Cold Sassy, Georgia and 5 year old Jean Louise â€Å"Scout† Finch of Maycomb County, Alabama. Both characters were brought up in small, close-knit southern towns, with false views of the world, and ignorance to knowledge and experience. As the stories progess however, the two gain a new type of knowledge and realization of the world. Experiences dealing with love, death, racism and discrimination helped the character’s child-like ideas of the world blossom into a more adult-like perspective. Will and Scout had changed in ways both . My paper will further discuss the traits that Scout Finch and Will Tweedy share. Will Tweedy is a teen-aged free spirit, living in Cold Sassy at the beginning of the twentieth century. On July 5, 1906, scandal breaks in the town when Will’s grandfather, Rucker Blakeslee, marries Miss Love Simpson; who is half his age. Rucker married Miss Love barely 3 weeks after his wife Mattie Lou, had died. Scout Finch was only 5 years old when her father, Atticus Finch, took on the role of lawyer for a negro man named Tom Robinson, during the Great Depression. Atticus was talked negatively about throughout the white community of Maycomb. He was thought of as a traitor, and â€Å"nigger lover† (p. 108) Both Will’s and Scout’s families were centers of attention in their towns. Atticus and grandpa Rucker gave them similar adive. Atticus told Scout to pay the name calling no mind, and to stop fighting her classmates when they called him a bad name, or said a bad thing about him. Rucker tells Will to discard the social constraints of Cold Sassy. With the help of these two men, Scout and Will were able to learn how to handle the gossip that spread around town, about their families. Another issue the children were exposed to was discrimination. The blacks in Cold Sassy and Maycomb County, were treated as an inferior race. The blacks of Cold Sassy that worked white households used different dishes for their meals, as Will and Miss Love talked about one morning in the kitchen. â€Å"I mean colored cooks know white people don’t want them using their dishes and things. That’s why they all drink out of jars and eat off of old plates or pie pans. † (P. 205) Scout was first introduced to discrimination with Tom Robinsons trial. On the trial’s ending, Scout learned that blacks are treated differently then whites because they’re a different kind of â€Å"folk†. She also learned that Atticus had no problem defending Tom; and even proved his innocence. But since Tom is black, he was found guilty in the eyes of the white jury. Will Tweedy also has a lesson on love when his relationship with Lightfoot McClendon doesn’t work out. The first time he kissed her, while they were in the cemetary driving his dad’s car, he realized the kiss was a mistake. Lightfoot was a mill girl, and mill town people were looked down upon by the other members of Cold Sassy. After she ran away, Will started to worry about her. It was then that he realized, he had feelings for her in a deep kind of way. The last time he had seen Lightfoot, had been when she came by the store to tell about her engagement to Hosie Roach. Not only was the girl he loved getting married, she was also getting married to Hosie Roach, his enemy. He was saddened about the engagment, but still wished her the best. This lesson on love Will learned was that, love doesn’t always work out the way you might want it to. Scout learns the true meaning of getting to know someone by â€Å"getting in their skin and walking around in it. † (P. 30) Scout used this way of thinking for Boo Radley. Many people in Maycomb thought Boo was a crazy, evil man because of a trial he went through as a teenager. Scout found out however that, that wasn’t the case at all. Boo had done many things for Scout and her brother Jem such as; leaving them gifts in the hollowed tree, stitching up Jem’s pants when he ripped them on the fence, putting a blanket over Scout’s shoulders while she watched the fire, and saving both her and Jem from Mr. Ewells. With all of these nice deeds done for them, Scout concluded that the neighborhood had the wrong idea about Boo, and after walking him home the night he saved them, Scout took a minute to stand out on the porch, and try to see Maycomb the way Boo saw it from his window. Will and Scout both experienced death, but in two different ways. Will’s experiences with death happened with first his grandmother, and then later with his grandfather. Miss Love Simpson had a baby on the way, that Rucker did not know about. Since Will had spent so much time with his grandfather, it was now his job to help take care of the baby, and make sure his grandfather’s legacy is not lost. Scout had experienced death in the forms of her mother and Tom. Scout’s mother had died when she was a baby, so she didn’t remember her much, but her mother’s death affected the way Scout was raised. With her mom dead, Scout was brought up in a household ran by a widowed father, and a colored cook. Both Scout Finch and Will Tweedy learned important lessons at early ages. These lessons are what shaped their now, adult-like perspectives on life, world, people and themselves. Those are some similarities and differences between the two characters.

14 Popular Fantasy Tropes (and How to Revitalize Them)

14 Popular Fantasy Tropes (and How to Revitalize Them) 14 Popular Fantasy Tropes - And How to Make Them Feel New Again Fantasy tropes, like any other type of literary trope, are recurring images, themes, or devices that are used to the point of being common conventions amongst its genre.When writing a genre  such as fantasy  (with such well-known concepts), authors often feel the need to straddle a fine line: include too many tropes and readers will get  dà ©j vu; don’t include a single clichà © and you risk losing readers who have come to expect certain themes and touchstones from a fantasy novel.The thing is, conventions commonly crop up in stories because most of them contain some element of universal relatability - and people enjoy the familiar. Even the best fantasy novels make use of tropes.So embrace the balancing act by acquainting yourself with some of the most popular fantasy tropes out there, and by learning how to prevent your characters, plots, and worlds from becoming a complete clichà ©. 14 popular fantasy tropes - and how to make them feel new again. Character tropesAt their heart, all stories are about characters who represent some aspect of human nature - and fantasy is no exception. Many novels in this  genre feature  archetypes, which is not necessarily a bad thing - so long as your characters' development aligns with the narrative arc and doesn't rely on clichà © pitstops.Tropes: we love to hate them and hate to love them. What are some of your favorites, or most eye-roll-inducing fantasy novel conventions? Let us know in the comments below!

Discuss the role of social medias influence (Twitter, Facebook, and Essay - 2

Discuss the role of social medias influence (Twitter, Facebook, and Youtube) in the lives of children and young teens today - Essay Example The AACAP states that â€Å"60% of 13 to 17 years old have at least one profile on a social networking site† (Aacap 1). Social networking websites have several features and one of the most important features is news and information. Information available on these websites includes academic related information as well as news regarding current events (Strader 98). When children access these features they end up developing insight regarding what is happening in the world around them. This feature even helps them in learning more than what is offered at schools. Social media is even helping children develop and sustain social relationships. Social media such as Facebook allows children to communicate online with other individuals including children from their own schools. OKeeffe states that â€Å"social media allow teens to accomplish various tasks including staying connected with friends† (OKeeffe 1). This helps children in remaining in constant contact with friends at all times. This increase in time spent with friends even leads to increase in the sustaining of relationships with individuals who exist in the virtual as well as the physical world. Social media is even helping children in keeping themselves entertained. Social media such as YouTube allows children to share pictures, videos, music and projects with other social media users (Harlen 122). YouTube helps children in finding their favorite songs and movies and children access these entertaining elements to keep themselves busy and entertained. Children even share their own videos and songs over YouTube to express themselves in front of other social media users. OKeeffe states that social media helps in the â€Å"enhancement of individual and collective creativity through development and sharing of artistic and musical endeavors† (OKeeffe 1). There are

Self-build Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

Self-build - Dissertation Example Findings revealed that the self-builders are satisfied with most of their projects’ aspects and all share a desire to promote self-building to other families. However, self-builders find the planning and permission gathering process tedious and tend to consume much of their time, money, and energy. Therefore, policy reforms regarding planning and permissions are suggested to alleviate the hardships that self-builders face even at the early stages of the project. Most importantly, the study revealed that planning is a significant component of self-building which primarily influences cost and build time. Self-builders should therefore, take it incumbent upon themselves to put the same effort to planning as they would the actual building. Table of Contents Executive Summary 1 Table of Contents 2 List of Figures 3 Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION 4 Chapter 2 – EVALUATION OF SELF-BUILD CONSTRUCTION METHODS 7 Chapter 3 – REVIEW OF THE PROCESS OF SELF BUILDING 14 Looking / Finding Land 15 Financing the Self-Build Project 15 Designing the Self-Build Project 16 Planning the Self-Build Project 16 Choosing the Building System 17 Project Management 19 Compliance with Building Regulations 20 Building Contract 22 Compliance to Health and Safety 23 Materials and Scheduling 23 Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS OF THE PILOT STUDY DATA 26 Chapter 5 – CONCLUSION 43 REFERENCES 45 Appendix 1 – SURVEY INSTRUMENT 48 List of Figures Figure 1: Greatest Motivation to Self-Build 27 Figure 2: How Land was Availed of for the Self-Build Project 28 Figure 3: Factors which Facilitated Availment of Land for Self-Build Project 29 Figure 4: Early Problems Encountered in Self-Build 30 Figure 5: Type of Land / Plot Purchased or Used 31 Figure 6: Mortgage Type Availed 32 Figure 7: Build System Used 33 Figure 8: Total Floor Area 34 Figure 9: Status of Self-Build Home 35 Figure 10: Self-Build Project Budget 36 Figure 11: Percent of Budget Covered by Loan 37 Figure 12: Pers on Who Handled the Self-Build Project 38 Figure 13: Build Time 39 Figure 14: Level of Satisfaction on the Outcome of the Self-Build Project 40 Figure 15: Suggested Self-Build Reforms 41 Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION The construction industry in the United Kingdom provides employment to about 2.4 million people. The sector contributed 8 per cent to the UK Gross Domestic Product. The construction sector also supports all other industries and government services in the UK in terms of their dominant role in the establishment of buildings and infrastructure. This may yet be a signal that as of 2010, the construction sector is springing back up from the slump in 2009 precipitated by the deepening recession (The Construction Industry Training Board, 2010). A review of the construction output reported by Office for National Statistics (2011), however, revealed that total output from the sector dropped by 18.3 per cent in February of this year, from last quarter figures. New work output de creased by 19.1 per cent, while repair and maintenance plummeted by 16.8 per cent. The largest decrease in construction output was in new work for private housing at 23.3 per cent. This documented decline may well be a consequence of the problem of housing affordability which Riley (2005) forecasted to be getting worse in the coming years. The government lost no time in implementing interventions to ease out

Sexual Violence in Government and Politics Essay

Sexual Violence in Government and Politics - Essay Example From this paper it is clear that  politics governs the world since most of the policies used to implement the law and order are as a result of political ramifications. However, politics goes beyond the formulation of rules and laws that are used as a benchmark to govern societies. State have their foreign policies that regulate the extent to which they engage with other global allies. In the twenty-first century, sexual violence has become a tool for creating a compromise between opposing groups in the case of political conflicts. For instance, if a conflict ensues between two opposing sides of the government one may kidnap some members of the community’s particularly women and girls to exploit them sexually as an act of provocation to compromise the other group to come to consensus.This essay highlights that  sexual violence is thriving in governments, but most of the cases go unreported since their perpetrators threaten the victims because of the influence they command. It is a common phenomenon in most governments that people have to part with sexual favors in order to receive certain services from government officials. For instance, if one is looking for a job in a government agency, the bosses often demand sexual favors in return for the job. In essence, it is a kind of a barter exchange that occurs, but that result because the victims find themselves in a compromising situation in which they either give in to the demands or else they miss the opportunity, benefits or service that they were to receive.  

Technologicial Entrepreneurship & Innovation Essay

Technologicial Entrepreneurship & Innovation - Essay Example Lack of communication and coordination, thus becomes an impediment on the invention. Individuals working alone do not have to manage teams and thus can fully concentrate on the work at hand. Jewkes also points out that research organizations hire people who may not be totally research driven. The passion to achieve something new is absent from many people working within an organization. For the individual worker, the passion is there since he utilizes his own resources and his efforts largely go unpaid. Despite this, the individual worker pursues his aim since he is driven by the passion of invention. However, research organizations set the pace for the invention which would otherwise be dependent on the inventor’s spark of genius which could take any length of time if the inventor is left to his own devices. While Jewkes fights against the concept of individuals working in teams, he also provides certain pros of the position. He believes that teams should be encouraged so as to provide support to the individual worker. According to Jewkes, the purpose of teams should be to help the actual inventor to gain support from the men who are under his command. Also Jewkes believes that teamwork has become imperative in this era of specialization. This is because as science and technology have advanced to new levels, it is difficult for the individual to know everything. This then demands the need for team work where members fill in the information required to work on complex tasks. b. Innovation arising among individuals or small enterprises vs. large, highly structured enterprises (about 500 words) Innovation arising among individuals is the preferred form of innovation in the opinion of Jewkes. To support this claim, Jewkes offers various examples as well as...Apple iPod was introduced in 2000 as a reaction to music players that were already in the market but none was as sleek as the Apple iPod. The ten stereotypes developed by Scott Burken do not absolutely hold true for this innovation. As times, the iPod defies the stereotypes and takes in own path. One stereotypes that iPod defies from the ten stereotypes is the reaction of the public towards the product. Previously consumers were using large music players that were bulky and not as convenient as the iPod, thus when presented with the iPod; they fell in love with it. Apple Inc. already had a reputation of delivery top quality innovative products and this reputation went along with iPod. Thus iPod was an instant success among the public since they were given a more beautiful and bigger machines for playing music than they previously had. Burken, on the other hand, asserts that innovations when introduced in the market do not receive the reaction that they do after some time. They fail to generate interest among the customers; however, this was not the case with Apple’s iPod. Another stereotype that Apple iPod defies is that it was developed under the guidance of Steve Jobs. Steve Jobs, before being an innovator, is a manager.

Ethical Argument Choose a topic and argue the ethical side opposite of Essay

Ethical Argument Choose a topic and argue the ethical side opposite of the accepted norm - Essay Example Such could be the results of miscues especially of decisions, which are shadowed by the mists of pride and vested interests and the neglect of some ethical and moral guidelines. War had been a way of life for early civilizations. It was primarily the direct result of segmented societies where communities are tied by tribal concerns of control. The need for survival requires dominance within an area. To have a wider space means an assurance for more resources more security for living. The evolution of societies from early nomads until the present is marred by a lot of small and big wars. We have two major world wars and other big war yet to come, which doomsday seers predicted to cause an end to humanity. Therefore, whether we like it or not, war is an accepted norm. But trends in war have changed from the way it was fought in prehistoric and olden times. The rise of deep concern to human lives created awareness among the government leaders and ordinary persons alike the importance of preservation of life. War has become a form of arrogance and aggression. Wars fought today in the same cause, as thousand years ago is condemnable act. Today, war becomes a means of defense to suppress the interest of those who want to dominate a certain territory without respect for human rights. When the US led a campaign in Kuwait, it was meant to liberate a nation. When US challenge the North Koreans or other nations going into nuclear program, it was intended to warn them of the possible effects in future ambitions of arms development. Since the idea about war has shifted from barbaric acts of territorial grabbing to more of defensive acts the norm shifted to international recognition of human rights. Nations, great or small, share equal right and peoples of d ifferent races, colors, and territory show respect with one another. Many nations joined international organizations to recognize everyone's rights. The 21st century is the turning point of history and witness to the shift from the savage war of the past to humanistic concern of the present and the future. But the declaration of the war on terror after the 9/11 events caused a global war against enemies we don't know. The campaign has caused more casualties of innocent lives, arrests of innocent persons, and branding of several organizations who air grievances against their nations as terrorists. The war was indeed claimed to have been launched to secure the world against terrorists, but it has gone to a point that human rights were already compromised. But terrorism is a big issue and requires some moral judgment to qualify or consider certain acts as a form of terrorism. There are accepted definitions of terrorisms but interpretations differ. As Record stated: The definitional mire that surrounds terrorism stems in large measure from differing perspectives on the moral relationship between objectives sought and means employed. It is easy for the politically satisfied and militarily powerful to pronounce all terrorism evil regardless of circumstance, but, like it or not, those at the other end of the spectrum are bound to see things differently (8). As a result the War on Terror created confusion among the young Americans, who were taught about the morals of war and peace. The moralist consider the "attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon not acts of war but as a species of natural disaster, requiring unstinting generosity towards the

Leadership Plan for Hurricane Andrew Research Paper

Leadership Plan for Hurricane Andrew - Research Paper Example This paper will come up with a leadership plan for addressing the case study outlying Hurricane Andrew and the challenge it brought to the Florida communities. Hurricane Andrew was a catastrophic cyclone that was, at that time, the worst hurricane in the history of the United States. The fourth tropical hurricane, initially named the storm, and then the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season, Hurricane Andrew originated from a tropical wave over the Atlantic on August 16, 1992, from West Africa. At first, strong wind shear stopped much escalation (Waugh, 2000). A decline in shear the next day allowed the depression to strengthen turning into Tropical Storm Andrew by 1200 UTC. This was on 17th August (Waugh, 2000). Nevertheless, increased wind shear on 18th August diminished convection linked to the storm. In the next two days, wind gradient drastically reduced, and Andrew became a minimal cyclone on August 22. Thereafter, the hurricane turned westward under the power of a high-pressure system and began quickly to strengthen later that day. Shortly before moving through the Bahamas, Hurricane Andrew strengthened into a Category 5 cyclone on 23rd Au gust. The cyclone weakened vaguely over the Bahamas to a Category 4 cyclone, but shortly re-intensified into a Category 5 cyclone on 24th August before making landfall on Elliott Key, and afterwards in Homestead, Florida. The hurricane’s effects were mostly felt in Florida as it resulted in mass human displacement and property damage. Assessors estimated that the damages from the hurricane resulted in almost $20billion making it the most devastating and expensive cyclone ever to hit the U.S. (Waugh, 2000). Hence, it was vital to make sure that people recovered fully from the hurricane’s effects and were restored to their previous lives. The United States had a Federal Response Plan (FRP) in place. This was their response arm in case of such calamities. However, the

Ethical Argument Choose a topic and argue the ethical side opposite of Essay

Ethical Argument Choose a topic and argue the ethical side opposite of the accepted norm - Essay Example Such could be the results of miscues especially of decisions, which are shadowed by the mists of pride and vested interests and the neglect of some ethical and moral guidelines. War had been a way of life for early civilizations. It was primarily the direct result of segmented societies where communities are tied by tribal concerns of control. The need for survival requires dominance within an area. To have a wider space means an assurance for more resources more security for living. The evolution of societies from early nomads until the present is marred by a lot of small and big wars. We have two major world wars and other big war yet to come, which doomsday seers predicted to cause an end to humanity. Therefore, whether we like it or not, war is an accepted norm. But trends in war have changed from the way it was fought in prehistoric and olden times. The rise of deep concern to human lives created awareness among the government leaders and ordinary persons alike the importance of preservation of life. War has become a form of arrogance and aggression. Wars fought today in the same cause, as thousand years ago is condemnable act. Today, war becomes a means of defense to suppress the interest of those who want to dominate a certain territory without respect for human rights. When the US led a campaign in Kuwait, it was meant to liberate a nation. When US challenge the North Koreans or other nations going into nuclear program, it was intended to warn them of the possible effects in future ambitions of arms development. Since the idea about war has shifted from barbaric acts of territorial grabbing to more of defensive acts the norm shifted to international recognition of human rights. Nations, great or small, share equal right and peoples of d ifferent races, colors, and territory show respect with one another. Many nations joined international organizations to recognize everyone's rights. The 21st century is the turning point of history and witness to the shift from the savage war of the past to humanistic concern of the present and the future. But the declaration of the war on terror after the 9/11 events caused a global war against enemies we don't know. The campaign has caused more casualties of innocent lives, arrests of innocent persons, and branding of several organizations who air grievances against their nations as terrorists. The war was indeed claimed to have been launched to secure the world against terrorists, but it has gone to a point that human rights were already compromised. But terrorism is a big issue and requires some moral judgment to qualify or consider certain acts as a form of terrorism. There are accepted definitions of terrorisms but interpretations differ. As Record stated: The definitional mire that surrounds terrorism stems in large measure from differing perspectives on the moral relationship between objectives sought and means employed. It is easy for the politically satisfied and militarily powerful to pronounce all terrorism evil regardless of circumstance, but, like it or not, those at the other end of the spectrum are bound to see things differently (8). As a result the War on Terror created confusion among the young Americans, who were taught about the morals of war and peace. The moralist consider the "attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon not acts of war but as a species of natural disaster, requiring unstinting generosity towards the

Caring for Children and Young People Booklet Essay Example for Free

Caring for Children and Young People Booklet Essay Unit 10 caring for children and young people assignment 2 of 2, report There are 3 types of maltreatment: abuse, neglect, bullying and harassment. Abuse can be physical, emotional (intellectual) and sexual. Signs of physical abuse are: * Unexplained injuries that sound untrue or doesn’t fit in with the injury * Injuries on a non-mobile baby or head injuries on a child who is less than one year old * Nervous behaviour, jumpy, watchful and cautious, scared of psychical contact – shrinking back when touched * Difficulty in making friends and trusting others * Refusing to undress for physical education or medical examination, wearing too many clothes in warm weather to cover up the injuries * Chronic running away and school absences * Repeated attendance at accidentemergency * Self-harm and self-destructive behaviour, being bullied * Aggression towards others, bullying others * Lying, stealing, getting into trouble with the police Signs of emotional abuse are: * Delayed development – emotionally immature for age, physically small and intellectually behind peers * Nervous behaviour such as rocking , hair twisting , self-harm * Speech disorders * Extremes of passive or aggressive behaviour * Fear of making a mistake and a overreacting to a mistake * Fear of new situations but can be over friendly with strangers * Continually putting themselves down * Inability to be spontaneous * Inability to concentrate Signs of sexual abuse are: * Medical problems in the genital area, sexually transmitted illnesses, bed wetting * Being overly affectionate and sexually knowing – demonstrating sexually inappropriate behaviour, flirting or graphic, sexualised play * Changes in behaviour – withdrawn, sad or even more extreme – depression, self-harm and attempts to suicide * Eating  disorders such as anorexia, bulimia, loss of appetite or compulsive overeating * Behaving than much younger child for example thumb-sucking or having a cuddly toy * Thinking badly about them and at the same time trying to be ultra-good and overreacting to criticism * Being afraid of someone they know, not wanting to be alone with them, lack of trust * Being scared of physical contact and fear of undressing Signs of child being neglected are: * Poor personal hygiene * Underweight or constantly hungry, may be stealing food * Always tired and cannot concentrate to learn or play * Clothing inadequate for weather, too small, dirty * May have untreated medical conditions e. g. cough, cold * No friends, might be bullied, socially isolated * Destructive tendencies Risk of maltreatment can be within family, outside family for example in care setting or strangers. Children and young people are more at the risk to be maltreated by people known by them. When a child has specific learning difficulties, communication difficulties, specific development delay, genetic influence, difficult temperament, physical illness, academic failures and low self-esteem then the child is more at risk for maltreatment. Consequences of maltreatment vary depending on child’s age and the type of maltreatment. The long term consequences of maltreatment on children and young people who are not helped effectively have a personal cost and a cost to a society as a whole. Children with constant fear that is experienced when being abused can affect brain development with long life consequences. Brain scans show the difference between abused children and non-abused children. Child from 0 to 3 years needs to bond – make a secure and trusting relationship with the main caregiver in order to develop health. Ability to feel empathy, compassion, trust and love is based on these early experiences. If bonding is not there then the relationship between caregiver and child is not right. There are four theories of maltreatment: medical, sociological, psychological and feminist. The medical model of child abuse is where abuse is viewed as a disease which is called the battered-child syndrome which is a clinical condition is children who  have received abuse and is a cause of permanent injury or even death. The sociological model of maltreatment defines child abuse in terms of social judgement of parental acts which are considered inappropriate by cultural standards and practices. Sociological models focus on contextual condition such as poverty that give rise to abuse. The psychological model of maltreatment is an attachment theory and says that a child needs to develop a relationship with at least one caregiver for development to occur normally. The feminist model say that feminist believe that men like to have all power and they can get it by abusing children or to regain power if they have lost it. If child abuse is suspected then it should be immediately reported. It depends on where the child abuse is suspected, people should always follow the policies of the setting and implementing safe working practices. For example if you work in school or nursery you would talk to the designated person for example manager or head teacher. People should write down causes for concern as and when they happen recording as much information down as possible and writing down only the facts. So if a child tells you something you should write it down exactly as they said it and not what you think they mean. Depending on what has been disclosed would depend on how you react. For example if child has a bump on their head and is very quiet about it and doesn’t tell you it doesn’t mean that they have been abused. You have to know their parents too. If a child discloses something which is of concern to you for example they reveal that they have been abused then action should be taken immediately to ensure child’s safety. A person has a responsibility to maintain confidentiality according to policies of the setting. Person who is suspecting the abuse should always listen and communicate at children or young person’s pace and without any pressure and always take the child seriously. Strategies and methods that can be used to support children, young people and their families where abuse is suspected or confirmed is that person should be respectful towards these children and have a child centred approach. Active support should be provided which empowers children and young people. Their self-confidence, self-esteem, resilience and assertiveness should be supported because it is really low when people were abused and it is needed to really support children and young people because it would have affected them. You should always share information and not to keep secrets from them but giving  information according to their age because you wouldn’t want to give too much information or inappropriate information for example to a 3 year old and you would talk differently with children than with young people. For families it is important to develop supportive relationships with parent and families and involving parents in the assessment of children needs to help them not to make the same mistakes in the future and to make them know what the children needs to have. People should always help parents to recognise the value and significance of their contributions and encourage them to develop their parenting skills. To minimise the effects of abuse you should always encourage expression of feelings within acceptable boundaries to help them deal with their emotions and to help them improve their self image. Helping them to build self esteem and confidence is also really important, for example by play therapy or counselling. Rasheed, Elizabeth; Irvine, Jo; Hetherington, Alison. BTEC Level 3 National Health and Social Care. London, GBR: Hodder Education, 2010. p 224. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/southessex/Doc?id=10448710ppg=235 Copyright  © 2010. Hodder Education. All rights reserved. http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/pdfs/nfnts-childneglect_e.pdf http://forums.nurseryworld.co.uk/showthread/c23d171e-b642-4e2a-a09c-d21a022f5ca5/ The Battered-Child Syndrome, July 7, 1962. (brak daty). 03 19, 2012 http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/181/1/17.abstract

Sports Biomechanics and Functional Anatomy

Sports Biomechanics and Functional Anatomy Introduction: Biomechanics is the sport science field that applies the laws of mechanics and physics to human performance, in order to gain a greater understanding of performance in athletic events through modelling, simulation and measurement (Wood, 2009). According to Mcginnis, (2004), Biomechanics is useful to sports and can identify what forces may have caused an injury, how to prevent the injury from recurring and what exercises may assist for injury rehabilitation. It can be used for alternations in technique, equipment or training to prevent or rehabilitate injury. The general role of Biomechanics is to understand the mechanical cause-effect relationships that determine the motions of living organisms. In relation to sport, Biomechanics contributes to the description, explanation, and prediction of the mechanical aspects of human exercise, sport and play. Sports biomechanics offers methods by which the very fast actions which occur in sport can be recorded and analysed in detail. An importa nt application of sports biomechanics with any sport is the definition and understanding of skills. This can help in the coaching process and as a result enhance the learning and performance of those skills (Reilly and Williams, 2003). When looking at golf it is clear to see a lot of skill is involved during the swing. Hung and Jani, (2004) stated that the golf swing is one of the most complex biomechanical motions a human can make in sport. The aim of the golfer must be to make a consistent strike of the ball to propel it in the desired direction for a given distance. Furthermore the hip plays an important role in the golf swing. The Hip joint: The hip joint is one of the largest and most stable joints in the body. It is a ball and socket joint that consists of the head of the femur connecting with the acetabulum of the pelvic girdle. The pelvic girdle, including the hip joint plays an important role in the supporting the weight of the body while offering mobility by increasing the range of motion in the lower extremity. The acetabulum is the concave surface of the ball and socket joint, facing anteriorly, laterally and inferiorly. Furthermore the spherical head of the femur fits snugly into the acetabular cavity, giving the joint both congruency and a large surface. Both the femoral head and the acetabulum have large amounts of spongy trabecular bone that facilitates the distribution of the forces absorbed by the hip joint (Floyd and Thompson, 2001; Nordin and Frankel 2001; Uys, 2004). Ligaments of the hip: According to Callaghan et al, (2006) several strong ligaments reinforce the capsule of the hip joint. These include the iliofermoral ligament, the pubofemoral ligament and the ischiofemoral ligament. The iliofemoral ligament is the strongest ligament in the body and helps to prevent extension of the femur when the body is standing erect. It is a Y-shaped band of very strong fibres that connects the lower front iliac spine of the coxal bone to a bony line (intertrochanteric line) extending between the greater and lesser trochanters of the femur. However the pubofemoral ligament extends between the upper portion of the pubis and the iliofemoral ligament. Its fibres also blend with the fibres of the joint capsule of the hip joint. The ischiofemoral ligament is made up of a band of strong fibres that originate on the ischium just behind the acetabulum. These fibres blend with the fibres of the joint capsule of the hip. (Pickering, 2009) Muscles of the Hip: The muscles of the hip joint are those muscles that cause movement in the hip. Most modern anatomists define 17 of these muscles, although some additional muscles may sometimes be considered (Mind Body Motion, 2007). These are often divided into several groups. These muscles control the movements of the hips. According to Ãâ€"zkaya et al, (1999) the psoas, iliacus, rectus femoris, pectineus and tensor fascia latae are the primary hip flexors. These are also used to carry out activities such as running, walking and kicking. The gluteus maximus and the hamstring muscles are hip extensors. The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus are hip abductor muscles providing for the inward rotation of the femur. The gluteus medius is also the primary muscle group stabilizing the pelvis in the frontal plane. The adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magus and gracilis muscles are the hip adductors and also provide for the outward rotation of the femur. Movement of the hips: The hip joint allows for the greatest range of movement as it has the capacity to move in three planes, about three axes. It also has a great deal of mobility, which allows normal locomotion in the performance of daily activities. Kolt and Mackler, (2003), state that the hip joint has three degrees of freedom of motion which include flexion-extension in the sagittal plane, abduction-adduction in the frontal plane (figure 3.2) and external-internal rotation in the transverse plane. Golf The modern golf swing has evolved with this use of technology, both in equipment and analysis; as well as the physical training the golfers now go through. The golf swing is a very complex body motion, involving a large range of movement of the upper limbs that act as a link between the golf club and the body, with the lower limbs acting as the main movement promoting areas. Limitations in the body in terms of flexibility, muscular strength, endurance, or power can create faults in the swing from a biomechanical perspective. As a result, most of the successful golfers in the world today, are relatively fit, flexible and strong compared to in the older generation of golfers. Improved technology in gyms has given golfers the opportunity to strengthen specific and key muscles used in the swing. Hip rotation is very important to the effectiveness of the golf swing. According to Hill, (2007), it holds the key to a powerful swing. To increase power and ball-striking ability the hips need to rotate properly during the swing. According to Atherton,(2009), most amateur golfers rotate their hips too far during the backswing, which makes it difficult for them to get their hips to open up to the target at impact, a key component of a successful swing. However, the increased risk of hip injury is a relatively recent hazard for golfers, arising from the greater rotation favoured by the modern golf swing. This adaptation of this technique itself reduced the incidence of low-back injury among golfers. The downswing begins with a forward movement of the hips that, with good golfers, actually begins approximately 0.1 seconds before the club head reaches the limit of the back swing. This moving forward of the hips rotates the whole upper body and moves both levers through the first part of the downswing (Hay, 1993). The forces responsible for this forward movement of the hips and the lesser forces exerted by the same hip and leg muscles later in the downswing have been estimated to account for 2.5 hp of the total 3-4 hp generated in a good drive. Thus it can readily be seen that the muscles of the hips and legs constitute the main source. A series of EMG studies have described the role of the hip muscles during the golf swing (Thain and Alistair, 2002). A study by Tsai et al, (2004), showed that hip abduction strength was significantly higher in better golfers. In addition it stated all the hip movements tended to be stronger in the best golfers who had the lowest handicaps and longest driving distances. In one study performed by the University of Umea in which the muscle activities in 13 male professionals while performing a golf swing were analysed using dynamic surface electromyography (EMG) and the muscle activities were measured in percent of maximum manual muscle testing (MMT) of each muscle. During the forward swing, gluteus maximus, expressed the highest muscle activity during a complete golf swing (84%). This indicates that especially the trailing side, gluteus maximus, is an important hip stabiliser as the golfer shifts the weight to the target side and the golf club begins to accelerate (Grinell, 1999). In golf the hip is especially exposed to high-velocity internal rotation on the downswing, requiring a great deal of eccentric gluteus muscle control. Set-up, ball positon, alignment and posture are essential for a good swing. However according Shamus, ( 2001), the most common characteristic of an improper setup position is failing to use a hip-hinge motion to obtain the primary spine angle. Furthermore evolved technology has made it easier for golfers and coaches to analyse the golf swing and correct mistakes made by the golfer. Technology advances: (ASTAR and Powerstool) The Astar digital video technology is the latest, highly sophisticated software that evaluates and analyses recorded golf swings. This means that golf instructors can literally capture and illustrate every aspect of a students swing to determine and remedy any problem areas. It automatically creates a video file of the entire desire motion (for a golf swing from address to follow-through). Astar includes all necessary functionality to analyze technical performance, hence improve the golf swing by this method of analysis. By using the very latest A Star professional software, golf swings can be analysed from many different angles and a plan can be put in place for the improvement of any golf swing (ASTAR, 2006). The powerstool is another example of advanced technology used to improve the golf swing. It mimics the perfect golf swing as close as possible enabling the golfer to get inot the most efficent position (Strachan, 2009).The powerstool makes sure the golfer achieves the right amount of hip turn and shoulder turn. This helps to reduce tension and strain that is common with over turning. Technology in footwear and insoles has also developed throughout the years making golf shoes more comfortable and blister free. It has also been proven that specific golf shoes reduce injuries of the lower extremities. In addition, according to Light, (2008), the use of custom foot orthoses to change the mechanics of foot function may improve hip extension and create prolonged relief of low back pain symptoms. As a result, they provide a viable alternative to surgery to treat hip and back painmaking it pain free for golfers. Orthoses are also helpful for supporting the arch of the foot, offloading specific pressure points in the foot, and cushioning the heel. Furthermore it was claimed that orthoses could be a non-invasive approach to improving biomechanics and possibly pain. ECCO golf, (2009) states that their golf shoes use a double-layer inlay sole that ingeniously absorbs heel force, reducing the impact felt by your knees, hip and back. That same heel force is also used to power an air-circulation system that ensures a fresh, dry and cool environment for your feet making it comfortable for the golfer. In conclusion, it is clear to see that technology is evolving a rapid rate with new advances in biomechanical parameters. Advances in analysis and equipment has been proven to improve general performance of all sports and even holds an important role in reducing injury and the rehabilitation of injury.

Determining The Ratio Of Circumference To Diameter Of A Circle :: essays research papers

Determining the Ratio of Circumference to Diameter of a Circle   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In determining the ratio of the circumference to the diameter I began by measuring the diameter of one of the si objects which contained circles, then using a string, I wrapped the string around the circle and compared the length of the string, which measured the circumference, to a meter stick. With this method I measured all of the six circles. After I had this data, I went back and rechecked the circumference with a tape measure, which allowed me to make a more accurate measure of the objects circumferences by taking away some of the error that mymethod of using a string created.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After I had the measurements I layed them out in a table. The objects that I measured were a small flask, a large flask, a tray from a scale, a roll of tape, a roll of paper towels, and a spraycan.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By dividing the circumference of the circle by the diameter I was able to calculate the experimental ratio, and I knew that the accepted ratio was pi. Then I put both ratios in the chart.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By subtracting the accepted ratio from the experimental you find the error. Error is the deviation of the experimental ratio from the accepted ratio. After I had the error I could go on to find the percentage error. The equation I used was, error divided by the accepted ratio times 100. For example, if I took the error of the experimental ratio for the paper towels, which was 0.12. I took that and divided it by the accepted ratio giving me .03821651. Then I multiplied that by 100 giving me about 3.14. Using these steps I found the percentage error for all of the objects measured.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The next step was to graph the results. I was able to do this very easily with spreadsheet. I typed in all of my data and the computer gave me a nice scatter block graph. I also made a graph by hand. I set up the scale by taking the number of blocks up the side of my graph and dividing them by the number of blocks across. I placed my points on my hand drawn graph. Once I did this I drew a line of best representation because some of the points were off a little bit due to error.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By looking at my graph I can tell that these numbers are directly proportional to each other. In this lab it was a good way to learn about error

T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land - The Most Influential Work in Modern Liter

T.S. Eliot’s "The Waste Land" - The Most Influential Work in Modern Literature T.S. Eliot’s "The Waste Land" is considered by many to be the most influential work in modern literature. First published in 1922, it captures the feelings and sentiments of modern culture after World War I. Line thirty of "The Waste Land," "I will show you fear in a handful of dust," is often viewed as a symbol of mankind’s fear of death and resulting love of life. Eliot’s masterpiece—with its revolutionary ideas—inspired writers of his era, and it continues to affect writers even today. In the first two lines of "The Waste Land," Eliot says, "April is the cruellest month, breeding/Lilacs out of the dead land" (l. 1-2). Eliot shows the connection between death (emptiness) and life (fulfillment). Flowers and trees awaken and grow after the long, harsh winter months. The plants receive nutrients—and life—from the decayed remains of past vegetation. Yulisa Maddy’s No Past No Present No Future begins with the same ideas of new life beginning out of death. Joe Bengoh, after witnessing the fire that destroys his house, mumbles, "My parents dead?" (3). His callous words hardly conceal his true feelings of contempt for his parents. Joe’s suppressed jubilation is apparent in his next few thoughts. He thinks that, after the tragic death of his parents, Father O’Don will surely accept him at the mission house. In an attempt to make himself look troubled and distraught, Joe sticks his finger into his mouth and then rubs his eyes. Joe "kept on d oing this until his eyes went red and felt as if he had been crying" (6). Joe ends up being accepted to the mission house, and he becomes inseparable from his new friends, Ade John and Santigie Bombolai. Joe’s new, positi... ...ecognize these changes in his work. The works of Ernest Hemmingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald follow Eliot’s, and America’s, ideas and trends. Hemmingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) also deals with World War I and the modern ideas toward sex. Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1925) portrays the alcoholism and sexual promiscuity of the Jazz Age. In No Past No Present No Future, The "Brothers Three" use alcohol and drugs quite frequently, and they all tended to sleep around as well. The revolutionary ideas described in Eliot’s "The Waste Land" influenced many great writers in the past and continue to have an impact on authors today. Works Consulted Bible, The. New International Version. Zondervan: Grand Rapids, 1996. Eliot, T.S. The Waste Land, Prufrock and Other Poems. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1998. Maddy, Yulisa Amadu. No Past No Present No Future. Oxford: Heinemann, 1996. T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land - The Most Influential Work in Modern Liter T.S. Eliot’s "The Waste Land" - The Most Influential Work in Modern Literature T.S. Eliot’s "The Waste Land" is considered by many to be the most influential work in modern literature. First published in 1922, it captures the feelings and sentiments of modern culture after World War I. Line thirty of "The Waste Land," "I will show you fear in a handful of dust," is often viewed as a symbol of mankind’s fear of death and resulting love of life. Eliot’s masterpiece—with its revolutionary ideas—inspired writers of his era, and it continues to affect writers even today. In the first two lines of "The Waste Land," Eliot says, "April is the cruellest month, breeding/Lilacs out of the dead land" (l. 1-2). Eliot shows the connection between death (emptiness) and life (fulfillment). Flowers and trees awaken and grow after the long, harsh winter months. The plants receive nutrients—and life—from the decayed remains of past vegetation. Yulisa Maddy’s No Past No Present No Future begins with the same ideas of new life beginning out of death. Joe Bengoh, after witnessing the fire that destroys his house, mumbles, "My parents dead?" (3). His callous words hardly conceal his true feelings of contempt for his parents. Joe’s suppressed jubilation is apparent in his next few thoughts. He thinks that, after the tragic death of his parents, Father O’Don will surely accept him at the mission house. In an attempt to make himself look troubled and distraught, Joe sticks his finger into his mouth and then rubs his eyes. Joe "kept on d oing this until his eyes went red and felt as if he had been crying" (6). Joe ends up being accepted to the mission house, and he becomes inseparable from his new friends, Ade John and Santigie Bombolai. Joe’s new, positi... ...ecognize these changes in his work. The works of Ernest Hemmingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald follow Eliot’s, and America’s, ideas and trends. Hemmingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) also deals with World War I and the modern ideas toward sex. Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby (1925) portrays the alcoholism and sexual promiscuity of the Jazz Age. In No Past No Present No Future, The "Brothers Three" use alcohol and drugs quite frequently, and they all tended to sleep around as well. The revolutionary ideas described in Eliot’s "The Waste Land" influenced many great writers in the past and continue to have an impact on authors today. Works Consulted Bible, The. New International Version. Zondervan: Grand Rapids, 1996. Eliot, T.S. The Waste Land, Prufrock and Other Poems. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1998. Maddy, Yulisa Amadu. No Past No Present No Future. Oxford: Heinemann, 1996.

Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture.Feminist Archeology Essay

This refers to a feminist perspective used in interpreting the past societies. The main focus is on gender in relation to class, race or sexuality. This archeology was critiquing the very uncritical modern, western values applications that were being used to look at the area of archeology. Feminist anthropology has three waves with the first wave occurring between1850 and 1920, the second wave was between 1920 and 1980 and the third wave which still exists to now started in 1980’s. The first wave The main concern coming from the first wave was the need to ensure women voices are taken into account in area of Ethnography. They wanted any little information that women contributed to Ethnography to be included in all records of data that are available or have recognized men who participated in the same field. Margaret Conkey together with Janet Spector wrote a paper entitled ‘Archaeology and the study of Gender’ in 1992 which was critiquing the way the then archeologists were overlaying the modern Western Gender values and norms on past societies like on matters of division of labor based on Gender, of which all the contexts or artifacts only attributed to tasks done by men and all the characters related to the discipline were attributed to only masculine values. Women on the other hand were asked to take professions relating to laboratory studies rather than field work (Clea, 13). Clifford believes that during the second wave, the female archeologists started focusing on academic sphere separating sex and gender notions, which had been used interchangeably during previous periods. Gender had been used to refer to the male and the female, their cultural construction and the relationship that existed between the two. Even though gender definitions vary from one culture to another, the feminist anthropologists were against the broad generalizations that were being done. The female archeologist in the second phase also rejected the concept of inherent dichotomies like whom between a man and a woman was to remain home or go to work. Research done during this second wave was developed in a materialistic perspective. Theories touching on social relations researched on women, production and reproduction factors associated with them. Many scholars that follow this Marxist theory focus on gender and how it relates to changes in production modes, power social relations a nd class (23). According to Clea (12), the third wave that occurred in 1980’s expanded their focus beyond gender, to include archeology and physical anthropology. They focus on the difference existing between women rather than between the males and females. They focus on differences that come as a result of race, class, and even ethnicity. They also encouraged consideration in other categories like religion, age, status and occupation, what they mean and how they relate with each other, moving away from the male and female concept. Power was a crucial factor during the third wave as it gave the females an opportunity to construct their identity, hence the need for a ‘fragmented theoretical approach’ that focuses on a particular fragmented subject. The point’s female theories were reacting to. According to Clea (41), first wave feminist anthropologists were reacting to the fact that discussion on women only focused on areas of marriage and family, with little regard on women issues and gender leading to a very deficient understanding on general human experience. The female archeologists also criticized the language that was being used in the discipline, especially the word ‘man’ which was in a way very ambiguous, because at one point it referred to all homo sapiens and sometimes it was referring to the male population in general. According to Clifford (39), second wave feminists on the other hand were criticizing Durkheim’s notion which recognized having a static system, which can easily be broken down in inherent dichotomies. The female anthropologists argued that the social system is very dynamic as the social relations at the end of they come down on practice. Feminist Anthropologists who emerged during the post-structuralist time criticized cultural feminism theory which was opposed by Mary Daly together with Adrienne Rich. The theory believed in the existence of a male or female essence which validated traditional roles performed by the male or female folks. The theorists focused on women’s tenderness, sentimental and her subjectivity as her main self awareness. Those opposing the theory claimed that it ignored the oppressive nature of the traditional values on the women population. Clea asserts that further criticisms were from the African-American archeologists together with other people from ethnics, who represented the minority population, who questioned the power of questions that were being asked by earlier feminist anthropologists. Audrey Lorde wrote to Mary Daly questioning her view that the oppression women faced were identical in women of all races. It views that the early female anthropologists like Zora Neale were excluded from matters Anthropology, not because she did not have a PHD but because of her race. The African-female anthropologists believe that black anthropologists continue to be ignored or marginalized despite their great contribution to archeology (23). Globalization is a major force in redefining society today. Discuss the effects of migration on the nation-state. Also, what does it mean to be a trans-border citizen? Joseph defines Globalization as set of processes that embodies transformation of social relations or transactions which have been expressed in transcontinental and interregional networks of activities power and interactions. It has been categorized in four kinds of changes with the first focusing on stretching of economic, social and political processes across regions, continents and frontiers. The second kind involves the intensification of interconnectedness and smooth flow of investment, trade, finances, culture and migration (2). Nicole explains that while the third is linked to speeding of global processes and interaction procedures, as there is development of global transport systems and communication platforms which increases the rate at which people share ideas, capital, information and capital. The fourth focuses on the fast rate global interactions which show the effects of distant activities can have a great significance elsewhere and how specific local development in one country can affect global development. All these four kinds of globalization shows us that boundaries that exist between local issues and global matters have become increasingly fluid, hence it is widening, growing, intensifying and increasing the impact of global interconnectedness (21). Effects of migrating on a nation-state According to Joseph (28), migrating on a nation state reduces the sovereignty of a country due to the acceptance by the nation to use international law and abide by the human rights principle which legitimizes the international community to intervene if a country is not treating the immigrants well. In addition due to globalization effects, migration among nation states reduces a nation’s Autonomy by transnational corporation powers and supranational bodies which reduce a nation’s capacity to create and implement policies and decisions that are touching on economical, social and political issues. Held &McGrew believe that a country’s authority on border control is undermined by migration due to burgeoning cross-border frequent flows of capital, ideas, migrants and commodities. If elected officials of different nations no longer have the power to make national decisions due to supranational level, democracy reduces a lot due to lack of popular representation. This migration also undermines the important link between states and their nations, due to diverse and huge mobile populations with affiliations in various states, reducing space for individual races. It will also see a decline in welfare state because of huge corporations and international markets having authority to restrict intervention by affected nations, as they demand deregulation and privatization (34). Nicole believes that Western states have predominated; the global stage in organizing politics, identity, culture and economic development of many nations especially developing countries. Globalization has led to the proliferation of many transnational communities leading to increased mobility across borders of populations, as they increase the possibility of maintaining very close links between their homeland and co-ethnics happening elsewhere (18). According to Held & McGrew, (12) trans-border citizens are also given the opportunity to erode border-control protocols as they decline the link existing between the citizen and his nation. In addition, they undermine the territorial sovereignty of a nation, as a result of creating cross-border links that are very durable, divided loyalties and many multiple identities. Using Terry Eagleton’s book, Across the Pond, as a starting point, discuss the meaning and symbolic representation of individualism in American culture During the past many Americans have found the British oddness very fascinating, but according to Terry Eagleton, the U.S citizens are the ones who are more strange and individualistic in nature. Through his journey in language, national character of the citizens and the country’s geography, Terry probes the depths of the United States culture with both an academic mind and humor. He answers questions expressed by his fellow compatriots like why the Americans wake up at dawn even during holidays and Sundays. Through this book, the writer Eagleton shows true admiration of the American individualism culture. In the book Eagleton makes broad, debatable generalizations like ‘Americans find it hard to do things by halves’, ‘The British are no enthusiasts of extremes’, and ‘Americans tend to sling things together that Europeans would keep strictly apart’. Even though these observations do not apply to specific individuals, Terry generalizes them to describe how Americans operate, being given the Authority to do so because of poetry. From the beginning of the book, he recognizes the fact that most Americans will not take his sentiments lightly because of their total devotion to personal rights and individualism. He however expresses his point on stereotypes and his sense of humor by making an observation that if truly the Americans hold on to their individuality concept, then they should take his observations as an irony about them. While addressing the issue of obesity Terry (9),believes that is affecting over 60% populations of the Americans, he observes that many of them have no idea that the entire population does not have people like them, or they have not gotten the chance to observe that for they are too fat to fit in the aircraft. This only means that the American population are only concerned with what is happening to them and do not care about what other nations across the world are going through. As much as most of the observations are not insult the Americans, his chapter that focuses on differences between the English and Americans is full of mistakes that are very hilarious in the sense that anyone who has interacted with people from Britain will automatically realize. According to Terry (21), emphasis on the American dream also brings about the individualism that the American citizens possess. He observes that, ‘Americans are great believers in the fraudulent doctrine that you can do anything you want if you try hard enough’. He however does not understand why this dream has not helped them to eradicate poverty, early teenage pregnancies, social exclusion and incarceration. By attacking the American dream, it is clear that he is of the idea we should not be so selfish to the point we cannot realize when it is time to give up and let go rather than making a fool out of ourselves. The American’s political structure as explained by Eagleton shows how individualistic they are by nature. He refers to their politics as having only one party state that of democratic capitalist and republican capitalist, with the diversity of their opinions not even able to rival the varieties of candy bars. He explains that the Americans are capitalists and that is not going away any soon. Even though people view Obama as a capitalist, he believes that the love affair the Americans have with capitalism is not going anywhere. Generally countries that have a capitalism economy are individualistic as they put their concerns first before any other (Terry, 23). Despite being humorous and ironically, the book has underlying meanings that if studied well can help in understanding the American culture. The change in leadership between the democratic and republicans and their style of leadership does not differ much as most of their policies are always focused on protecting their nation against any enemy that wants to kill the country’s sovereignty. From the book it is clear that the country does not care about the needs of other countries as long as their own interests are protected and safeguarded. This can be seen in the way they handle the Arab nations when it comes to fighting terrorism. American government have in the recent past been accused of tapping phone conversations of big government officials in Britain, Germany, France and even the developing countries and the main reason for this is to safeguard their interests. The wiki leaks that occurred some years back are a true reflection of the lengths the country can go to protect their nation without caring about what will happen to other nations hence their individualism. Eagleton has observed that the Americans may not take his writings in a good way and true to his words; many Americans have criticized his writings just because it did not favor them. If the writings supported them, then most probably they would have supported the writings. But as much as it’s touching on the nation’s pride, they definitely oppose it in strong measures. The writer is however very individualistic in a way because he being an English man, only praises the British while criticizing the Americans. Having married an American, he should have at least said one positive thing about the Americans. References Terry Eagleton, â€Å"Across the Pond: An Englishman’s View of America†, London Press, London: 2013. Print. Joseph, Stigltz, â€Å"Making Globalization Work†, Harvard University Press, New York: 2008. Print. Clea, Koff, â€Å"The bone woman†, London Press, London: 2004. Print. Clifford, Geertz, â€Å"Interpretation of cultures† Harvard University Press, New York: 2008. Print. Nicole, Johns, â€Å"Nation-states and migration effects†, Oxford University Press, New York: 2013.Print. Held, Dannies. And McGrew, Andrew, â€Å"Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture†, Polity Press, Cambridge: 2000. Print. Source document