Ten Principles Of Economics And How Markets Works. Rian

Ten Principles of Economics and How Markets Works Rian Kotter ECO/365 Principles of Microeconomics January 19, 2017 Michael Blakley Ten Principles of Economics and How Markets Works As a part of the firm’s marketing research committee we need to understand the fundamentals of microeconomics and the ten basic principles associated with economics and its workings. (Mankiw, 2013) As discussed in Principles of Microeconomics, the following four principles deal with understanding the decision making process of people, which are: Trade-offs – the everyday act of deciding to buy one thing over another or spending one’s day, such as going skiing vs. working on a project at work that could help get a promotion). When discussing trade-offs†¦show more content†¦Making the calculation, the ticket should be $500, however if they are short of filling the plane by 10 seats, they can reduce the loss of those ten seats and possibly still make money by selling the last few seats for a little less as long as it covers the marginal cost of associate with the peanuts and soda the passenger might use (Mankiw, 2013). Incentives – this principle is simple to understand, which involves enticing people to do something you want them to do by giving them something they view as worth the trade-off or difference in cost of making one decision over another. (Mankiw, 2013) The next three principles deal with the interaction of people. Trade makes Everyone Better – by trading with one another we can all win or come out for the better. That’s because, not everyone can make something as good or at the same cost as someone else, for the simple reason that we do not have access to the same amount resources or skills to produce something. (Mankiw, 2013) A town in the mountains would have a difficult time suppling the same amount or quality of fish that a town located on a lake or the coast of an ocean. Yet the same town has access to a better supply of granite from its quarries or lumber from its forests than the town better equipped for fishing. Organizing Economic Activity with Markets – Markets are made up of a multitude of companies and individuals buying, selling, and consuming goods and services. These markets are in turn

Rumored News on Current Event Essay Samples Uncovered

Rumored News on Current Event Essay Samples Uncovered Current Event Essay Samples This does not mean it is impossible to create a captivating essay on recent events. Guidelines On How To Write A Current Events Essay A present events paper is a quick description of an event that has just happened or will happen. One of the greatest strategies to study Sociology is through the interpretation and knowledge of current events in the specialty. Students lead busy lives and frequently forget about an approaching deadline. Current Event Essay Samples for Dummies There's, naturally, a limit on the variety of pages even our finest writers can produce with a pressing deadline, but usually, we figure out how to satisfy all the clients seeking urgent assistance. An excellent journalist ought to be able to produce excellent predictions. Take into consideration the event and that which you feel people ought to know about doing it. It's also an important security issue since it reinforces cycles of violence and conflict. What You Must Know About Current Event Essay Samples Inspiration to make your own advertising or media argumentative essay topics isn't really hard to discover. Once you have done your research and at this point you have all the essential resources. Explaining how to spend less by employing open-source texts and internet textbook rental websites would result in an extremely informative essay. Because you won't be permitted to bring research material into the room, your essays won't be as detailed since they might otherwise be. While writing such an essay it is possible to omit strict structure regulations. You don't need to find super technical with legal argumentative essays, but make sure you do your homework on what the recent laws about your preferred topic actually say. The article review must incorporate a concise analysis clearly identifying the financial issues represented. Your thesis statement might be in the introduction. The cost of an essay is dependent upon the quantity of effort the writer has to exert. At this time you have to support your opening statement. Based on that, you will structure the components of your response essay. Really Amazing costs NO PRESCRIPTION REQUIRED! Naturally, there is absolutely no way to spell out an event in a totally objective way. A tremendous conclusion section is a massive minus, which says that you cannot summarize your thoughts concisely. Here are the 10 things they have to watch. 10 days is the advised time but deciding on a shorter timefram e is likely to make your research skills standout. It is possible to also secure several discounts on our site which will help you to save some more money for future orders or anything you want to spend them on. Your essay might incorporate the factors for teen pregnancy and talk about the present rates of teen pregnancy and potential solutions. There's no such thing as an objective viewpoint. Begin the conclusion by re-establishing the major point. In short, one is in a position to look for information, or can require the new media (internet media). Once you've come up with a few details that you want to include in the debut, start putting the pieces together to find out what you produce. Each one among these prompts has a link so that your teens can read more regarding the problem. It was just now that he felt safe, and managed to go back to his home. Ok, I Think I Understand Current Event Essay Samples, Now Tell Me About Current Event Essay Samples! Change occurs becau se of conflict between competing interests as opposed to through adaptation. The author quotes that this will not simply influence the poor nations but also the developed nations. Current Event Essay Samples Help! Speak to us now to find expert essay writing help! Okay, now you have the fundamentals about how to opt for an informative essay topic, let's dig into some wonderful ideas! When it is argumentative or informative essays, you must develop a topic that could grab the interest of the reader very quickly and this isn't such an easy job. Thus, to compose a great essay you need to brainstorm all thoughts concerning your life experiences. Following are a few of the suggested sociology essay topic for those students that are unable to pick a great topic for their assignment. Which is why, though the words are struck through, they can nevertheless be read. This paragraph is quite important because it leaves the reader having the most immediate impression. It's likely you would like to earn an excellent strong impact before presenting more evidence and details about your topic. The debut of the essay helps bring readers into the circumstance. The debut of your document should familiarize the readers with the topic and provide them a brief outline regarding what you will be addressing. From this info you ought to have a notion of the way to introduce it to the reader. In addition, a customer may ask the writer to submit part of the job for review and, if needed, ask them to make corrections. The article review must incorporate a concise overview of the facts in the article utilizing economic terms. It must include an analysis of the problem or debate.

Macbeth The Witches Responsibility for Macbeths Essay Example For Students

Macbeth: The Witches? Responsibility for Macbeth?s Essay ActionsMacbeth: The Witches Responsibility for Macbeths ActionsThe three witches that are introduced at the beginning of the play are responsible for the introduction of the ideas that caused Duncans death and Macbeths destruction but not for Macbeths actions themselves. They recount to Macbeth three prophecies; that Macbeth will be: 1) Thane of Cawdor, 2) Thane of Glamis, and 3) King. Macbeth welcomes the ideas spawned from the witches prophecies, which is what triggered the spiral of events in this story. Macbeth eventually followed through with killing King Duncan. It was sometimes thought that the witches had the ability to reverse the natural order of things. This brings to the play the idea of fate and the role it has in the play. One can wonder if Macbeth ever had a chance of doing what was right after he heard the witches prophecies. However, it is more realistic to believe that Macbeth was responsible for his own actions throughout the play and in the end it was he that made the final decisions. The witches could predict the future, they can add temptation, and influence Macbeth, but they cannot control his destiny. Macbeth creates his own misery when he is driven by the guilt of his actions. This causes him to become insecure about his actions, which causes him to commit more murders. The witches offer great enticement, but in the end, it is each individuals decision to fall for the temptation, or to be strong enough to resist their appeal. The three witches are only responsible for the introduction of these ideas and for further forming ideas in Macbeths head, but they are not responsible for his actions throughout the play. Lady Macbeth is partly to blame for the manipulation and the encouragement she gave Macbeth to do her evil deeds. Lady Macbeth is shown early in the play as an ambitious woman with a single purpose. She can manipulate Macbeth easily. This is shown in the line That I may pour my spirits in thine ear (1. 5.26). She is selfless, and wants what is best for her husband. Before the speech that Lady Macbeth gives in Act I, Scene V, Macbeth has decided not to murder Duncan. However, Lady Macbeth manipulates Macbeths self-esteem by playing on his manliness and his bravery. This convinces Macbeth to commit regicide. Her manipulation of Macbeth is like a child who is easily guided. Lady Macbeth knows this and acts on it. Although Macbeth has the final say in whether or not to go through with the murder, he loves his wife and wants to make her happy. Lady Macbeth is the dominating individual in the relationship, which is shown in her soliloquy in Act I, Scene V:The raven himself is hoarse that croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan under my battlements. Come, you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, and fill me, form the crown to the toe, top-full of direst cruelty! Make thick my blood, stop up th access and passage to remorse, that no compunctious visitings of nature shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between th effect and it! Come to my womans breasts, and take my milk for gall, you murdring ministers, wherever in your sightless substances you wait on natures mischief! Come, thick night, and pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell, that my keen knife see not the wound it makes, nor heaven peep through the blanket of the dark, to cry Hold, hold! (38-53)It seems that she can convince h im to do anything as long as she pushes the right buttons. On the other hand, as the play progresses, and Duncan is killed, there is a reversal of natural order, and Macbeth becomes the dominating partner. .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e , .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .postImageUrl , .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e , .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e:hover , .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e:visited , .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e:active { border:0!important; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e:active , .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u9313ae27c9c382139bafee1071d2618e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Timothy Zahn is one of Science Fiction's most reno Essay Lady Macbeth slowly loses her sanity. She becomes delirious and only a shadow of her former self. Ambition plays a large role in this tragedy. Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth have vaulting ambition that drives them. Lady Macbeths ambition drives her to manipulate Macbeth into committing regicide. Macbeths ambition was present before the witches prophecies. Without the witches prophecies and Lady Macbeths manipulation, he would never have thought seriously about killing Duncan. It is Lady Macbeth who states Thou wouldst be great, art not without ambition (1. 5.17-18). Macbeth states that: I have no spur, to prick the sides of my intent, but only, vaulting ambition (1.7. 25-27). Macbeths ambition is deep within him and because of this, both the witches and Lady Macbeth are able to sway him to evil. It is this ambition that gets him into so much trouble. Yet the combination of both his ambitious nature and the prophecies leads him to kill the king. Once Macbeth kills for the first time, he has no choice but to continue to cover up his actions, or risk loosing everything he has worked for. In the end, it all comes down to Macbeth. Everyone is responsible for his own destiny. Macbeth is responsible for anything he does and must take responsibility for his actions. Macbeth is the one who made the final decision to kill Duncan. He made these final decisions and continued with the killings to cover Duncans murder. The killing of Duncan starts an unstoppable chain of events in the play that ends with the murder of Macbeth and the suicide of Lady Macbeth. Macbeth chooses to murder Duncan. Macbeth, in the beginning had all of the qualities of an honorable gentleman who could become anything. This is all shattered when his ambition overrides his sense of morality. Although Macbeth is warned of the witches prophesies, he is tempted and refuses to listen to Banquo. When the second set of prophesies Macbeth receives begin to show their faults Macbeth blames the witches for deceiving him with half-truths. While the witches are not totally responsible for the actions of Macbeth, they are responsible for introducing the ideas to Macbeth that in turn fired up Macbeths ambition and led to a disastrous and unnecessary chain of events.

Sensitivity to Social Aspect of Life free essay sample

Sensitivity to social aspect of life Sensitivity is that urges the child to focus his attention on certain aspects of his environment to the exclusion of others. Such attention is not the result of mere curiosity; it is more like a burning passion. The sensitivity to social aspects of life begins at 2. 5 to age 6. Children pay special attention to other children of their own age. Children at about age three are in solitary play or parallel play. The work of sensitive period enables recognizable affections and friendships to develop. In this way, the child learns to be part of a group. During the sensitivity period of social aspect, we should create an environment that is warm and loving to meet the child’s emotional and spiritual needs. At the same time, we also provide opportunities for the child to experience social interactions with other children. At school, children are allowed to speak to each other and start their own activities together with whomever they chose to form groups with. We will write a custom essay sample on Sensitivity to Social Aspect of Life or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Teachers do not force them to form these groups, nor do they make them compete against one another. Hence, the children desire to help one another spontaneously whilst performing the chosen activity together. It is thus during his interactions with his classmates that the child comes across experience, which helps him to develop emotional maturity. For example, through practical life exercises, children are taught to learn how to share when they only have single pieces of equipment available for use for lessons. At home, as a parent, we also should encourage the child to play with the children and share something with each other. We provide the warm environment for the child to interact with other children. Whenever the child makes mistake, we should not scold them or treated them harshly. So, they will not treat harshly to other children, and all of the children will play together peace and happy. If the child is deprived of the right environment, for example, not allowing him to play or socialize with others, the child may feel lonely, and want a lot of attention from the parents. As a result the child will become very unfriendly and anti-social. So, during the sensitivity period of social aspect of life, we should create a good environment for the children.

History of Noahs Ark essays

History of Noahs Ark essays Flood stories have been a common thread in many religions across the globe. One of the stories we are most familiar with in our culture, the story of Noahs Ark, is a well known segment of the old testament, and an interesting story of how God punished the world for how corrupt it had become. God accomplished this reportedly by flooding the world, and annihilating all the creatures upon it, save for Noah and his family and a pair of each type of creature on the earth . This story, however, has roots deep in the past, some of which have only come to light with the development of new archeological techniques and technology. As more and more is found out about the era from whence this story originates, discoveries are made as to the origin of the story, what tale it was based upon, and as to the authenticity that such an event may have actually even occurred, if on a somewhat smaller scale. Based on the information available at the present time, one can make fairly confident inferen ces as to the root of this story. One could argue that the story of Noahs Ark was based on the Epic of Gilgamesh, and that in turn was based on older stories that were based on a real flood of the Black Sea. The story of Noahs Ark was first written as part of the old testament by the Jewish people. However, it is predated by far by the story of the Epic of Gilgamesh, a story that originated in the same area that holds many striking similarities to the tale of Noahs Ark. Though the story was modified to accommodate new characters, many properties of the story are similar, from small details like the creatures used as scouts to the religious purpose of the flood itself. For example, both the flood stories start with the characters receiving specific building instructions for a ship, which is to be used to spare the lives of one set of pairs of the creatures of the world. The dimensions of the ship underwent some drastic ch...

Get the Lead Out of Hunting

Get the Lead Out of Hunting The Lead Problem Throughout modern firearms’ evolution, lead has been the material of choice in the manufacture of ammunition. The high density of lead and its deformation characteristics give it desirable ballistic properties. For hunting purposes, lead is used to make the small, round shot packed in shotgun shells, and is the main component in the bullets used in rifles. What makes lead less than ideal, however, is that it is quite toxic. In 1991 in the United States (and in 1997 in Canada) lead shot was banned for waterfowl hunting. Up until that point, tons of lead shot had been raining on wetlands all over the continent each hunting season. As ducks were foraging for food in the sediments at the bottom of wetlands, they would ingest lead shot and many would eventually die of acute lead poisoning. Bird hunting upland, for example for pheasant, grouse, or quail, was not included in the 1991 ban. With upland hunting, the shot used does not become concentrated in discrete locations and it was not believed to be problematic to the degree waterfowl shot was. The same might have been believed for rifle bullets, which are to this day mostly made of lead. However, there are real environmental and health hazards associated with the use of lead for any type of hunting, and many hunters are changing their habits accordingly. How Lead Bullets Work In hunting rifles, the lead bullet is shot at high pressure into the target. At that point the collision with the flesh of the animal deforms the bullet, turning it into a wide, flat blob, killing the animal quickly if the shot is well placed. However, there is a key problem with lead bullets: when the bullet hits its target, it looses energy by deforming and breaking up, with dozens of small lead fragments ending up lodged in the entrails and the meat of the animal. These fragments can be as small as sand grains, and they are often found over a foot from the wound channel. Environmental Effects When a hunter guts a large mammal, the lungs, kidneys, digestive track, and other organs are left in the field, and with them tiny lead particles. These â€Å"gut piles† are fed upon by scavengers like foxes, coyotes, ravens, red-tailed hawks, eagles, and many other birds and mammals. The small lead bits are accidentally ingested as well. A very small lead fragment in an animal’s gut will be dissolved by the digestive juices, elevating blood lead levels to several parts per million, which is enough to kill a bird as large as a bald eagle. Anyone who has been in rural areas on opening day of a deer hunt can appreciate how many gut piles are left behind in the woods and imagine how many scavengers must have elevated lead levels in their blood.   Health Effects Traditionally, when big game hunters butcher their quarry they carve out the meat about two inches around the entry and exit wounds. When researchers used portable x-ray equipment to look at deer carcasses killed by rifle, they found very small lead fragments far away from the bullet wounds. These fragments then end up in the meat consumed by humans. Even packaged ground venison examined with x-ray technology showed a peppering of very small lead particles, small enough to be unnoticed by the unsuspecting eater, but large enough to cause dangerous health effects. Even at low concentrations, lead in adult humans interferes with renal function, affects learning and thinking, and disrupts our reproductive system. In children, nervous system development is impacted, and there is no such thing as a safe blood lead level. In communities getting a substantial proportion of their protein from wild meat, blood levels with significant lead levels are commonly found. The Solution For shotgun shells, various non-lead materials are now available for upland small game hunting, including steel, bismuth, and tungsten. For large game hunting, all-copper rifle bullets are now on the market for most calibers, and are gaining rapidly in popularity. These bullets retain their mass when entering an animal, without losing small pieces like lead does. Non-lead ballistic characteristics are very acceptable for most hunting situations, and the modern copper bullets have been field proven to be at least as lethal as conventional bullets. The only disadvantage of non-lead bullets is their cost, which is on average about 40% higher. In 2008, California banned lead ammunition in areas where California Condors live, as lead was identified as one of the major threats to that species’ existence. The ban will be extended to the entire state by 2019. For More Information Web resource discussing the science: Hunting with Non-lead. United States Geological Survey. Lead Poisoning in Wild Birds.

Conclusion of Online Contracts Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Conclusion of Online Contracts - Research Paper Example According to Deeksha Bhana and others, â€Å"an offer is an invitation by one party to create obligations with another party, which obligations will become legally binding upon the acceptance by the other party† . An offer must respect several legal requirements in order to be valid:  According to Deeksha Bhana and others, â€Å"an offer is an invitation by one party to create obligations with another party, which obligations will become legally binding upon the acceptance by the other party† . An offer must respect several legal requirements in order to be valid:  1. the offer must be made with animus contrahendi2. the offer must be complete, certain or at least ascertainable3. the offer must be communicated   to the offeree. In the online community, however, things are not so simple. Very often, these requirements are confusing or not observed by the participants, which further leads to serious legal issues. The author will analyze these legal requirements and e xplain them and the possibility of avoiding confusion at this moment.  This chapter will also analyze the concept of unilateral contract and the possibility of revocation of an offer.   1.2. Invitation to treat invitation to treat represents â€Å"an expression of willingness to negotiate. A person making an invitation to treat does not intend to be bound as soon as it is accepted by the person to whom the statement is addressed.†   Therefore, the main difference between an invitation to treat and an offer consists in their binding power. The paper will describe all the differences between these two concepts and analyze some possible situations that might occur due to the ambiguity of these two notions.  The main question that the author intends to answer in this part of the paper is: Is it an offer or an invitation to treat? In the answer to this question, the author will address to the concept of online advertisement and other important notions. This chapter will also analyze the concept of unilateral contracts and the possibility of revocation of an offer.  

Does Global warming exist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Does Global warming exist - Essay Example Global warming usually occurs when greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide is trapped in the atmosphere thus causing a thickening blanket that traps the heat from the sun, making the planet earth to warm up continuously over a period of time (National Research Council (U.S.), 2010). There is clear evidence that there has been a marked change in the composition of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that currently stands at 390 ppm and even higher levels have been recorded at 400ppm at Mauna Loa, Hawaii in May 2013. It can now be proven that the average global temperature has undergone a change of about 1.4 °F in the last one hundred years (National Research Council (U.S), 2010). While the American National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) found that, the period between years 2000 and 2010 was the warmest on record with 2005 and 2010 being the warmest (Giese, 20113). Scientists also project that Earth's average temperatures will raise between 2 and 12 degrees Fahrenheit by 2100 which will be disastrous to human life and all the animal life on the planet earth (National Research Council (U.S.), 2011).The rise in the global temperature has been shown through the changes in weather and ultimately the climate of regions such as changes in rainfall pattern and intensity. The oceans, seas and glaciers have equally undergone changes while the oceans have become more acidic, the glaciers and ice caps on mountains and the Polar Regions have melted while the sea levels have risen (United States. (2010). These changes can be attributed to climate change have been due to human activities and natural variations in the weather and climate of a place. It is important to observe that the earth goes through a natural cycle of cooling, warming that may be attributed to factors such as changes in solar system, and acts such as volcanic activity and these cannot be the only explanation for the rise in temperatures (U.S. Global Change Research Program and Karl, 2009).   According to the National Research Council (U.S) (2010), the biggest cause of the increase in the global temperature of the earth is the trapped greenhouse gases in the air that trap the warmth leading to heating. This has been proven using satellite technology to measure the fluctuations in the energy from the sun; scientists have proven that the sun’s contribution is minimal as compared to human activities. The upshot of this is that the increase in temperatures currently experienced globally is due to the warming properties from greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide that trap heat in the atmosphere. The increased concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere that also aids in the trapping and retention of the excess greenhouse gas emissions. Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, it leads t o further warming through a

Social Media Essay Example for Free

Social Media Essay A few years ago I jumped on the social media bandwagon after being introduced to it by my husband. I was always a little skeptical about social media because of all negative that I had heard about it. Now, I love it because there is a lot of positive about social media as far as I am concerned. Social media is an asset to marketing, and it is fun for personal use as well. I am fan of Facebook so I will discuss how it can direct consumers to a better source of purchasing. A Legally Astute Marketing Manager  According to our text a legally astute manger has four components; a set of value-laden attitudes about the importance of law to the firm’s success; a proactive approach to regulation and legal issues; the ability to exercise informed judgment when managing the legal aspects of business; the appropriate use of legal tools and context specific knowledge of the law (Bagley, 2013, p. 11). The legally astute social media marketing manager has to take those components a step further. The legally astute social media marketing manager must embrace social media and its networking power to drive sustainable change in the business world. In his book, We First: How Brands Consumers Use Social Media To Build A Better World, Simon Mainwaring shows how brands can leverage social media to build consumer goodwill, loyalty, and profit. One of the components of the legally astute manager stresses the importance of values. The We First value of accountability is what builds trust between institutions and the public and between brands and their consumers. Building trust helps the marketing manager take a proactive approach to regulation and legal issues. Trust is declining daily in today’s economy rapidly. According to the Edelman Trust Barometer, trust in American companies fell to an all-time low of 36 percent in 2009, but it rose to an unimpressive 54 percent in 2010. Companies must understand that they cannot by trust, but it must be earned and renewed. They can be easily exposed these days through social media if they fail to live up their promises. Goodwill is another component of accountability. Trust makes people want to buy from your company, and goodwill makes them want to recommend your company to others. The last element of accountability is transparency. Transparency means that individuals and companies must operate with honesty, credibility, and congruency between their words and deed. Transparency helps the manager stay focused on the law and the use of legal tools. It works against backroom deals, hidden agendas, false pretenses, and unethical conduct. All of these values of accountability help the legally astute social media marketing manager mitigate the risks involved in doing business in cyberspace (Mainwaring, 2011, pp. 82-83). Alternative Dispute Resolution Negotiation, mediation, and arbitration are methods of alternative dispute resolution procedures that can help companies maintain keep a relationship with an opposing party. Negotiation happens when the two opposing parties engage in give-and take to come to an agreement. Negotiation can be seen along different dimensions. It can be concerned for future or desired relationships or it can be seen to address past events that have caused disagreements. Mediation happens when parties agree to a solution with the help of a neutral third party. It is a cheaper alternative to a lawsuit, it costs less, and resolutions are speedy. Arbitration is the resolution of a dispute by an arbitrator, the neutral third party. It is the most formal alternative dispute resolution, and it is more like a trial. I think that mediation is most effective for resolving issues that arise with consumer who make purchases from businesses that provide links to social media. One reason why I chose mediation is because it is a flexible process, and it allows for different procedures, rules and structures. Mediation is an appropriate option when parties have a desire to settle their dispute, and they want to preserve their relationship. I think that Facebook would want to continue to grow as it is by the millions so mediation would a beneficial ADR for the company to use. The company’s need for privacy would also be a reason for it to use mediation to resolve any genuine disputes that may come about (Bagley, 2013, p. 67-71). Social Media Across State Lines State governments have general powers, also known as police power. These powers include the powers to protect the health, safety, welfare, and morals of state residents. The Eleventh Amendment immunizes states from lawsuits brought by individuals from another state or nation. There is a Supremacy Clause that makes federal laws supreme over state laws. The federal government should allow the states to have more control over how transactions that occur across state lines are handled. Managers can pursue change through political action committees and direct lobbying (Bagley, 2013, p. 92). Three Branches of Government There is a separation of powers within the federal government. The judicial branch, (the courts), the executive branch (the President and cabinet departments), and the legislative branch (the Congress) all make up the federal government. The Constitution provides the judiciary its power through Article I and Article III. Congress has the authority to establish federal courts through Article I and Article III provides the basis for federal courts judicial power. The President’s executive power is defined in Article II. The President has the power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, and he has extensive power over foreign affairs. He can also appoint Justices of the U. S. Supreme Court with the advice and consent of the Senate. He also has the power to approve or disapprove acts of Congress. The Legislative Branch consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate. They have the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among other states, spend to provide for the common defense and general welfare, coin money, establish post offices, levy and collect taxes, issue patents and copyrights, declare war, and raise and support armies. Congress can also make laws as necessary (Bagley, 2013, pp89-91). In m any ways, peaceful change is the ultimate benefit that social media can offer. Social media can reach millions of people with enough leverage to create change without any violence. Consumers do not have to beat down the doors of an irresponsible company. They can use Facebook to gain its cooperation. It is so important to look at the positive role that technology can play and to see how its uses will be increasingly oriented toward meaningful ends. The tools of social media are allowing consumers to shop more consciously. Dozens of websites help weed out wasteful or poorly made products. It is easier to get information about companies that are exposed for having unhealthy, unsustainable, or unethical practices (Mainwaring, 2011, pp. 59-160). Campaigns on Facebook work well because its viral communications tools enable large numbers to become aware of an issue and join together quickly. Facebook has been called digital democracy. Jared Cohen, a former student of Condoleeza Rice said, â€Å"Facebook is one of the most organic tools for democracy promotion the world has ever seen. † As Facebook began to grow globally, it was also being discussed in the White House Situation Room, where President Bush and his National Security Council staff gathered during crises. Because President Obama mastered digital tools in 2008, it was called the â€Å"Facebook election† (Kirkpatrick, 2010. p. 290). Even though the President is known for his use of social media, mainly Facebook, I think that the legislative branch can effectuate the most significant impact on regulating consumer transactions via social media outlets. One of the powers that it has is to regulate commerce with the foreign nations and the states. Because consumer transactions are an element of commerce, I would say that this branch would have the greatest impact. The legislative branch also has another important power that could benefit social media, and that is its ability to make laws as necessary (Bagley, 2013, p. 91). Agency Relationships Agency is considered an important legal relationship in today’s business world. Corporations could not function without the law of agency. Facebook introduced engagement ads as a form of advertisement. In its first year engagement ads generated close to a hundred million dollars of revenue. Facebook charges at least $5 per thousand views for those ads. Facebook gives advertisers more targeting options than most websites. Facebook is an awesome marketing tool for many businesses. For a well-known company like McDonald’s the number of mentions on the site is in the millions. Facebook is an agent for many businesses as well. Mazda asked its fans on Facebook to help it design a car for 2018. They received contributions from all over the world. Some consumer-oriented companies now put less emphasis on their website and more on their Facebook page. The relationship between people and companies will continue to evolve rapidly on Facebook and yield some startling developments. It is the perfect platform for building customer loyalty (Kirkpatrick, 2010, pp. 263-265)

Philosophy of Teaching Statement :: Education Teachers Careers Essays

Philosophy of Teaching Statement Education is one of the best professions to venture into. I believe a teacher should be a role model, should believe in their students, and try to help their students in any way they can. I feel that a teacher is one of the most important people in a child's life. A teacher is someone who loves and cares for her students. There are different natures of students. The first kinds of students are the ones who enjoy going to school and learning. These students are the most pleasurable to teach because they are willing to learn and it is very easy to deal with them. The second type of students are the ones who want to learn, but may not understand the concepts of the subjects you teach. I feel that if you can reach these students you have really touched a child's life. The third kind of student is the type that does not care if they learn or not. My heart aches when I see this happen. A teacher should try to assist this type of student as much as they can. The reason these students do not want to learn may be because they are making a cry for help. The purpose of public education is to give a child a better future. Without common knowledge people could not function in today's society. Why is education important? One wonders when they are in school why they must learn some of the materials that they do. The reason why we must learn is to stay ahead of others. If we do not learn then we may as well give up on being as smart as or smarter than others. As a country we have got to keep up with other countries, or we will see the demise of our homeland. As a teacher I hope to accomplish many things. A teacher is a person who should touch lives. If I can touch a person's life in some certain way it will make a difference in my life.

“Flight 063” by Brian Aldiss Essay

The poem Flight 063 by Brian Aldiss compares the business flight 063 to Icarus grand flight. Aldiss shows a different side of Icarus, showing the bright side of him, his flight, rather than about his great fall. While talking about Icarus flight, Aldiss talks about corporate men flying high over the Arctic Circle, without a care in the world about flying up in the sky, having it be a normal part of their lives, unlike Icarus, who only flew once. Aldiss tries to say that one should reflect on the good things in life instead of just the bad and to make the best of life. The diction used to describe Icarus flight and Flight 063 shows the difference in the style of flying that they are using. Why always speak of Icarus fall?(1). Well, everyone always remembers the bad things that happen in life, and the only good things remembered are those that impact the whole world. There is a poster somewhere that says, When I do something good, nobody remembers. When I do something bad, nobody ever forgets. That poster shows how everybody dwells on the bad, but Aldiss is showing that you should remember the good as well. The everyday was lost in his ascent (25-26) shows that when Icarus was flying, everything normal went away during his cliff-top jump, The leap of heart, the blue air scaled his glorious sense of life Imperiled (21-24). Icarus was doing what no other man has done- fly up high into the sky. His glorious flight into the sun left his sense of life gone, just wanting to fly closer to the sun, becoming a beautiful thing. Yet [w]hy always speak of Icarus fall?(1) when his flight was so much more. The allusions used to describe Icarus fall embellish on the fact that it could either be small and insignificant, or large and memorable. For example, that little splash which caught the eye of Brueghel refers to the famous painting, The Fall of Icarus. If you look at it, it looks like a regular scene of ancient Greece, but if you look closely in the bottom right hand corner, there is someone- Icarus- drowning in the water. Brueghel shows that Icarus fall was unimportant to the normal lives of the Greeks. The myth of Icarus is the main allusion in this poem. Aldiss uses the story of Icarus to state a point that before the fall the flight was (14). Before the tragic  fall, there was a great flight of Icarus, which we barely remember in our minds. When we hear Icarus, we think of a man whose wax wings have melted and who has fallen into the sea instead of a man who has accomplished flight, accomplished the discovery of the world in the air, and a man who found out that humans can fly. This is similar to how we think of Adam and Eve. —just before The Edenic Fall, [Adam] had that first taste of Eve (15-17). We think of only that if Adam and Eve hadnt been so foolish as to eat from the Tree of Knowledge that there would be no evil in this world, and that we would be immortal; we dont focus on what was happening before the eating of the fruit. They were in paradise. That just slips our minds sometimes and we only dwell on what happened afterwards. The best things in life are meant to be remembered, and the bad things are there just to remind you that youre human. Aldiss is trying to tell people that the best things of life should be enjoyed, and one should take heed silly limitations as the melting point of wax (28-29). Sources: Flight 063 by Brian Aldiss

Availability of Drinking Water

INTRODUCTION Drinking water or potable water is water of sufficiently high quality that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard, even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Clean drinking water has yet to be completely recognized as a basic human right. While water plays a vital role in every aspect of life, some do not realize the gravity of the shrinking clean water sources. When unclean water is consumed, it can cause serious illnesses, sometimes leading to death. According to statistics provided by the World Health Organization (WHO), about 1. 1 billion of the world's 6 billion people do not have access to clean drinking water sources. Drinking Water is essential to the survival of all organisms,water has always been an important and life-sustaining drink to humans. Excluding fat, water composes approximately 70% of the human body by mass. It is a crucial component of metabolic processes and serves as a solvent for many bodily solutes. Health authorities have historically suggested at least eight glasses, eight fluid ounces each (168 ml), of water per day (64 fluid ounces, or 1. 89 litres),and the British Dietetic Association recommends 1. 8 litres. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has determined that the average adult actually ingests 2. 0 litres per day. 70% of the Earth's surface is covered by water. Water is available almost everywhere if proper methods are used to get it. Sources where water may be obtained include: ground sources such as groundwater, hyporheic zones and aquifers. precipitation which includes rain, hail, snow, fog, etc. urface water such as rivers, streams, glaciers biological sources such as plants. the sea through desalination Access to safe water can be measured by the number of people who have a reasonable means of getting sufficient water that is safe for drinking. Availability of safe drinking water is an indicator of the health of a country. A developed country will be more efficient in collecting, cleaning and distributing water to consumers. It is a sad fact but is true that ninety percent of urban sewage in the developing world is discharged into rivers and other water bodies. In the developing world, millions of residents lack a source of safe drinking water near their homes. People get safe drinking water from various sources such as household connection, borehole, protected dug well, public standpipe etc. But the Question that arises is : † Does everyone has safe drinking water available? † Availability of drinking water scenario in India is very Bad as compared to other countries like USA, England, China etc. as can be observed from the underlying table: Countries Amount Finland:100% Australia:100% Netherlands:100% Norway:100% Sweden:100% Switzerland:100% United Kingdom:100% United States:100% Russia:99% Bangladesh:97% Albania:97% Egypt:97% Pakistan:90% Nepal:88% Brazil:87% South Africa:86% India:84% A detailed analysis can be seen in the graph shown : Paste this map over here.. http://www. mapsofworld. com/thematic-maps/safe-drinking-water. htm The availability of Drinking Water is hampered and altered depending upon various factors such as, Drinking Water pollution, Wastage, Demand supply ratios, Treatment methods etc. INDIAN STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR DRINKING WATER Indian Standards has set various limits over different chemical and physical properties of Water, in order to label it as Safe and Drinking Water, a sample of water, lying in the permissible range set as per IS, is safe for drinking. Following are the IS Specifications for Drinking Water : S. NO. Parameter Requirement desirable Limit Remarks 1. Color 5 May be extended up to 50 if toxic substances are suspected 2. Turbidity 10 May be relaxed up to 25 in the absence of alternate 3. pH 6. 5 to 8. 5 May be relaxed up to 9. 2 in the absence of alternate 4. Total hardness 300 May be extended up to 600 5. Calcium as Ca 75 May be extended up to 200 . Magnesium as Mg 30 May be extended up to 100 7. Copper as Cu 0. 05 May be relaxed up to 1. 5 8. Iron 0. 3 May be extended up to1 9. Manganese 0. 1 May be extended up to0. 5 10. Chlorides 250 May be extended up to1000 11. Sulphates 150 May be extended up to 400 12. Nitrates 45 No relaxation 13. Fluoride 0. 6 to 1. 2 If the limit is below 0. 6, wa ter should Be rejected, Max. Limit is extended to 1. 5 14. Phenols 0. 001 May be relaxed up to 0. 002 15. Mercury 0. 001 No relaxation 16. Cadmium 0. 01 No relaxation 17. Selenium 0. 01 No relaxation 18. Arsenic 0. 05 No relaxation 19. Cyanide 0. 05 No relaxation 20. Lead 0. 1 No relaxation 21. Zinc 5. 0 May be relaxed up to 10. 0 22. Anionic detergents (MBAS) 0. 2 May be relaxed up to 1 23. Chromium 0. 05 No relaxation 24. Poly nuclear aromatic Hydrocarbons — — 25. Mineral oil 0. 01 May be relaxed up to 0. 03 26. Residual free chlorine 0. 2 Applicable only when water is chlorinated 27. Pesticides Absent — 28. Radioactive — — REQUIREMENT V/s. AVAILABILITY Water. If you've got it, you probably take it for granted. But a quick scan of the globe — and a chat with the tiny group of researchers who are obsessed by fresh water — both indicate that water shortages are looming. And they aren't necessarily in the future, either. You don't miss your water, an old blues sage wisely said, 'til your well runs dry. Down here on planet Earth, the well is starting to run dry. We've seen projections that three billion people — half of today's population — will be short of water in 2025. The Earth has a finite supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Sometimes oceans are mistaken for available water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive today, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply derives from desalination. The Millennium Development Goal of halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water between 1990 and 2015 is a target we are aiming for. Although some countries still face enormous challenges. Rural communities are the furthest from meeting the 2015 MDGs drinking water target. Globally only 27% of the rural population has water piped directly to their home and 24% rely on unimproved sources. Of the 884 million people without access to an improved water source, 746 million people (84%) live in rural areas. Sub-Saharan Africa has made the least progress in improved water sources since 1990, improving only 9% to 2006. In contrast, the Eastern Asian region saw a dramatic drop from 45% to 9% reliance on unimproved water in the same time period. The shortage of water in our country is slowly affecting the lives of people as well as the environment around them. Some of the major issues that need urgent attention are: †¢ As a result of excessive extraction of ground water to meet agriculture, industrial and domestic demands, drinking water is not available during the ritical summer months in many parts of the country. †¢ About 10 per cent of the rural and urban population does not have access to regular safe drinking water and many more are threatened. Most of them depend on unsafe water sources to meet their daily needs. Moreover, water shortages in cities and villages have led to large volumes of water being collected and transported over great distances by tankers and pipelines. †¢ Chemical contaminants namely fluoride, arsenic and selenium pose a very serious health hazard in the country. It is estimated that about 70 million people in 20 states are at risk due to excess fluoride and around 10 million people are at risk due to excess arsenic in ground water. Apart from this, increase in the concentration of chloride, TDS, nitrate, iron in ground water is of great concern for a sustainable drinking water programme. All these need to be tackled holistically. With over extraction of groundwater the concentration of chemicals is increasing regularly. †¢ Ingress of seawater into coastal aquifers as a result of over-extraction of ground water has made water supplies more saline, unsuitable for drinking and irrigation. Pollution of ground and surface waters from agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) and from industry poses a major environmental health hazard, with potentially significant costs to the country. The World Bank has estimated that the total cost of environmental, damage in India amounts to US$9. 7 billion annually, or 4. 5 per cent of the gross domestic product. Of this, 59 per cent results from the health impacts of water pollution (World Bank 1995). DRINKING WATER POLLUTION Availability of drinking water is largely affected by its pollution, which has been leading and will lead to a decrease in its availability in the coming future. Drinking water pollution is a bigger problem than most people realize. While drinking water filters and bottled water has become a staple in our society, most consumers still use unfiltered drinking water for cooking, filling pet water bowls and bottles, and for mixing powdered drink mixes. Drinking water pollution is a big enough problem within our country to warrant the same vigilance as we give other health hazards. There are numerous sources that pile up into serious contamination potential for all drinking water. Whether your water is coming from a well on your property or if you are using â€Å"filtered† city water sources, the chances that you have a problem with drinking water pollution is quite high. Groundwater testing has shown that in any given area throughout the country as many as 200 variable contaminants have been detected. Long term exposure can create numerous health problems, including lead poisoning. While not every single contaminant is destined to cause a serious health problem or even any health problem at all, you can not count on your local contaminants to be harmless. Agriculture practices are one of the largest sources of groundwater contaminants. The chemical used in controlling bugs and other chemically based treatments run directly into the groundwater supply. Pesticides and poisonous agricultural raw waste can contaminate more than 40% of the surrounding groundwater. Ingress of seawater into coastal aquifers as a result of over-extraction of ground water has made water supplies more saline, unsuitable for drinking and irrigation. Pollution of ground and surface waters from agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) and from industry poses a major environmental health hazard, with potentially significant costs to the country. Another major contributor to drinking water pollution is urban run off. Another human based contribution that needs to be controlled at the source in order to save our drinking water supply. When rain washes urban trash, chemicals, and pollutants from the structures and roadways of populated areas, there is no way for the water to filter itself on its way to the groundwater. Everything from basic trash, cigarette butts, antifreeze, motor oil, gasoline, pesticides, and other daily use products are all contributing factors in groundwater contamination caused by urban run off. Practicing safer disposal practices of automobile chemicals, putting together trash clean up projects, and using environmentally safe household products can help cut down on urban run off pollutants. Lead is one of the most concerning urban run off pollutants, as lead poisoning can cause learning problems, chronic emotional and health issues, and is non-reversible. Drinking lead contaminated water is a serious health problem. Water Treatment Water treatment is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials, and biological contaminants from raw water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking water) but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements of medical, pharmacology, chemical and industrial applications. It is important to take measures to make available water of desirable quality at the consumer end. That leads to protection of the treated water during conveyance and distribution after treatment. It is common practice to have residual disinfectants in the treated water in order to kill any bacteriological contamination after water treatment. Processes for treatment of drinking water: The combination of following processes is used for municipal drinking water treatment worldwide: Pre-treatment: It consists or removal of large debris such as sticks, leaves, trash and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent purification steps. It also includes treatment of water with soda-ash to remove hardness or chlorine to minimize the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. pH adjustment: Distilled water has a pH of 7. If the water is acidic, lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide is added to raise the pH. Acid (HCl or H2SO4) may be added to basic waters in some circumstances to lower the pH. Making the water slightly basic ensures that coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and lead solder in pipe fittings. Flocculation: It is a process which removes any turbidity or color so that the water is clear and colorless and is done by causing a precipitate to form in the water which can be removed using simple physical methods. Coagulants / flocculating agents that may be used include: Iron (III) hydroxide Aluminium hydroxide PolyDADMAC Sedimentation: Water exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a settling basin. The dimensions of the tank are chosen such that it can lead to maximum particles settling down. As particles settle to the bottom of the basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of sludge must be removed and treated accordingly. Filtration: After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc. Different types of filters are: Rapid sand filters Slow sand filters Lava filters Disinfection: It is accomplished both by filtering out harmful microbes and also by adding disinfectant chemicals in the last step in purifying drinking water. Different types of disinfections are: Chlorine disinfection Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection Ozone disinfection Ultraviolet disinfection Hydrogen peroxide disinfection Various portable methods of disinfection Solar water disinfection Biological processes are also employed in the treatment of wastewater and these processes may include, for example, aerated lagoons, activated sludge etc. There is no unique solution (selection of processes) for any type of water. Also, it is difficult to standardize the solution in the form of processes for water from different sources. Selection of any of the following methods depends on the scale of the plant and quality of the water. Wastage/Conservation of Water Water is needed for our survival. It is the most important resource for us. So its high time for us to realize this and start conserving water. So we need awareness among people so that each individual puts effort at their level and contribute to the larger cause on the whole. Saving the earth from such a crisis would not be possible without the efforts of each individual. People can start at home by not letting their taps open and by not spilling the drinking water. People should not let their taps run when its not needed. It is important for them to realize that millions of people don't even get access to drinking water. Government needs to implement stricter laws to avoid wastage of water during distribution. Higher fines can be imposed on people who waste water and higher incentives can be given to those conserving water. Recycled water can be used for gardening, washing etc. Due to the current water crisis. Only during times of shortage, do we take emergency measures; saving water should be followed even when there is surplus. If not for the current water shortage, not many would have taken notice of such occasions. During the time when we used to get good rainfall, we never conserved water. A large city needs billions of litres of drinking water every day to service the needs. We will have to make alternate water sources like rainwater harvesting, dig wells and bore wells for our use. The civic corporation should take the initiative to check the broken water pipelines. Such networks rupture occasionally which result in wastage of water every day and should repair it. There should be a specific limit for using water, every society should strictly abide by it should be enforced by society’s office bearers. Due to leakage to existing drinking water pipelines, every day millions of litres of drinking water is going waste. If wastage is stopped the drinking water supply will improve to some extent. The supply of drinking water is not increasing according to demand. As a result, drinking water scarcity is arising. Urban Water Supply Even though the rate of urbanisation in India is among the lowest in the world, the nation has more than 250 million city-dwellers. Experts predict that this number will rise even further, and by 2020, about 50 per cent of India's population will be living in cities. This is going to put further pressure on the already strained centralised water supply systems of urban areas. The urban water supply and sanitation sector in the country is suffering from inadequate levels of service, an increasing demand-supply gap, poor sanitary conditions and deteriorating financial and technical performance. According to Central Public Health Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) estimates, as on 31 March 2000, 88 per cent of urban population has access to a potable water supply. But this supply is highly erratic and unreliable. Transmission and distribution networks are old and poorly maintained, and generally of a poor quality. Consequently physical losses are typically high, ranging from 25 to over 50 per cent. Low pressures and intermittent supplies allow back siphoning, which results in contamination of water in the distribution network. Water is typically available for only 2-8 hours a day in most Indian cities. The situation is even worse in summer when water is available only for a few minutes, sometimes not at all. A Stress Situation According to a World Bank study, of the 27 Asian cities with populations of over 1,000,000, Chennai and Delhi are ranked as the worst performing metropolitan cities in terms of hours of water availability per day, while Mumbai is ranked as second worst performer and Calcutta fourth worst (Source: Background Paper – International Conference on New Perspectives on Water for Urban & Rural India – 18-19 September, 2001, New Delhi. ) In most cities, centralised water supply systems depend on surface water sources like rivers and lakes. Chennai, for instance, has to bring in water from a distance of 200 km whereas Bangalore gets its water from the Cauvery river, which is 95 km away. Where surface water sources fail to meet the rising demand, groundwater reserves are being tapped, often to unsustainable levels. Delhi: The nation's capital is perpetually in the grip of a water crisis, more so during the dry season, when the situation gets particularly worse. As the demand-supply gap widens, more groundwater is being exploited. Of the water supplied by the municipality, approximately 11 per cent comes from groundwater reserves and remaining from the Yamuna river. It is, however, difficult to establish the total quantity of groundwater extracted because a large number of tubewells (owned by individuals, industries and bottled water companies) remain unregistered. In Delhi approximately 13 per cent (Source: Zerah. , M Helene, 2000, Water – Unreliable Supply in Delhi, French Research Institute of India) households do not receive water every day and in Rajkot, Gujarat, water availability in April 2000 was only for 30 minutes every alternate day. Rural Water Supply The rural population of India comprises more than 700 million people residing in about 1. 42 million habitations spread over 15 diverse ecological regions. It is true that providing drinking water to such a large population is an enormous challenge. Our country is also characterised by non-uniformity in level of awareness, socio-economic development, education, poverty, practices and rituals which add to the complexity of providing water. Dependence on the state has meant that with the cost of water supply being high and cost recovery being poor, the financial sustainability of water schemes has run aground, and repairs and maintenance is abysmal. With people having no interest in using water carefully, the sustainability of water has itself become questionable. There are serious problems with government drinking water supply schemes. Despite government efforts, the number of ‘problem villages' does not seem to go down, The government has indeed invested heavily on water resources development, which focussed on large-scale irrigation development for increasing green revolution-style agriculture production and drinking water supply programmes. Yet, a large part of the country remains drought-prone. This is because no specific effort has been made to drought-proof rainfed areas which suffer from high rainfall variability from year to year. Role of Government Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Environment and Forest and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare all have got a different roles to play to provide drinking water of adequate quantity and potable quality to meet the health needs of the community. All of them are involved and play their respective roles to provide quality water and its management. Roles of different agencies are listed below: †¢ Ministry of Water Resources: The Central Ground Water Board is monitoring both quantitative and qualitative data with regard to ground water. Apart from this CGWB has developed ground water maps concerning various qualitative issues. †¢ Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation: Working through various Urban Bodies, the Ministry is involved in monitoring drinking water quality in the urban agglomerations. There are quite a few Water Boards especially in Metro Cities who are equipped to take up the job, but not all urban bodies keep watch of the quality of water being provided on regular basis. †¢ Ministry of Rural Development: Department of Drinking Water in the Ministry is working through State public Health Engineering Departments or Water oards are monitoring the drinking water quality in the rural areas of the country. Almost all the districts do have WQ laboratory. Though WQ is generally tested during installation, follow up testing is not done on regular basis. The department in certain places is initiating community involvement for WQ testing including â€Å"Catchments Approach†. †¢ Ministry of Environment and Forests: Working through Central Pollution Control Board, the Ministry is involved in monitoring water quality of main rivers and big water bodies. Most of these water sources are being used for drinking water purposes. So CPCB itself or through State Pollution Control Boards is having a watch on raw water quality. †¢ Ministry of Health: So far the Ministry had been playing a limited role with regard to drinking water surveillance in some selected areas. But with the inclusion of drinking water under food category, MoH will be playing a significant role. Also Indian government enforced National water policy in 2002 and water pollution act( prevention and control) 1975 for maintaining water quantity and quality. CONCLUSIONS It takes the cooperation and the education of everyone to help clean up our biggest drinking water threats. The more environmentally friendly everyone becomes, the closer we get to finding cleaner drinking water and protecting our natural environment. Industrial and personal responsibility for our environment is the first and most significant step toward clean drinking water in the country in every community. According to a 2007 World Health Organization report, 1. 1 billion people lack access to an improved drinking water supply, 88% of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrhea disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, and 1. million people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO estimates that 94% of these diarrheal cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water. Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year. Reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public hea lth goal in developing countries.

SCHOOL AS ORGANISATIONS Updated Essay

SCHOOL AS ORGANISATIONS Updated Essay SCHOOL AS ORGANISATIONS Updated Essay Amy Thomas TDA 3.2 Schools as Organisations Understanding how schools are organised in terms of roles and responsibilities. 2.1 School Governors School governors are made up of 10-12 people and in some cases they have up to 20 people are of the governors. They should consist of a parent governor, one staff governor and many others. Some having links to the community. There will also be a appointed local authority governor, they will work closely with all parts of the school the school governors, local authority and the head of the school. Different governors will have different roles and responsibilities and they will all come together to discuss and information and make a full report back to the governing bodies. There main duties are: To set aims and objectives for the school. To adapt new policies for achieving the aims and objectives. To set targets for achieving the aims and objectives. (et-al:18) Senior Management Roles These are to help run the school, they are usually experienced staff in management and their role will be to work close with the head of the school, year groups leaders, foundation stage learner and SENCO. They will meet regularly to discuss and decisions concerns or any other relevant information or the running of the school. All information will then be shared with staff. Other Statutory Roles (e.g. SENCO) on school grounds there will be two SENCOs and they will be managing the provisions for those with special educational needs within the school this includes Ensuring liaison with parents and other professionals in respect of children with special educational needs. Advising and supporting other practitioners in the settings. Ensuring that appropriate IED(individual education plans) are in place. Ensuring that relevant background information about individual children with special educational needs is collected, recorded and updated. (et-al:18) SENCOs will also be responsible for keeping progress on any children with special educational needs Teachers Teacher will be responsible for the up the planning and preparation of lessons in their own class and also to follow the national curriculum, teachers should also be aware of any changes or amendments made to the national curriculum. They also are responsible for their own class and other roles around the school or subjects. To teach pupils according to their educational needs. To assess, record and report on the development, progress and attainment of pupils. To communicate and co-operate with persons or bodies outside the school. To communicate and consult with parents of the pupils. Usually to be responsible for managing an area of the curriculum, such as Geography, as included in the job description. Support Staff Roles The number of support staff as rose drastically in recent years the DFE's statistical first release in May 2010 shows the total number of teaching assistants across all LA maintained schools in England was 79,000 in 2000 and rose to 181,600 in 2009(source DFE:May 2010) (et-al:19) The types of support staff may be: After school/breakfast club Extended school staff Office or admin duties Teaching assistants Individual support assistants for SEN children Learning mentors and parent support workers Explain the roles of external professionals who may work with schools (e.g.) Educational Psychologist. 2.2 The school should have a SENCO who will work along side the Educational Psychologist, they will be allocated by the Special Educational

How to Separate Salt and Sand †3 Methods

How to Separate Salt and Sand - 3 Methods One practical application of chemistry is that it can be used to help separate one substance from another. The reasons materials may be separated from each other is because there is some difference between them, such as size (separating rocks from sand), state of matter (separating water from ice), solubility, electrical charge, or melting point. Separating Sand and Salt Students are often asked to separate salt and sand to learn about mixtures and to explore the differences between forms of matter that can be used to separate mixture components.Three methods used to separate salt and sand are physical separation (picking out pieces or using density to shake sand to the top), dissolving the salt in water, or melting the salt.Probably the easiest method to separate the two substances is to dissolve salt in water, pour the liquid away from the sand, and then evaporate the water to recover the salt. Physical Separation of Salt and Sand Since both salt and sand are solids, you could get a magnifying glass and tweezers and eventually pick out particles of salt and sand. Another physical separation method is based on the different densities of salt and sand. The density of salt is  2.16  g/cm ³ while the density of sand is 2.65  g/cm ³. In other words, sand is slightly heavier than salt. If you shake a pan of salt and sand, the sand will eventually rise to the top. A similar method is used to pan for gold, since gold has a higher density than most other substances and sinks in a mixture. Separating Salt and Sand Using Solubility One method of separating salt and sand is based on solubility. If a substance is soluble it means it dissolves in a solvent.  Salt  (sodium chloride or NaCl) is an ionic compound that is soluble in water. Sand (mostly silicon dioxide) is not. Pour the salt and sand mixture into a pan.Add water. You dont need to add a lot of water. Solubility is a property that is affected by temperature, so more salt dissolves in hot water than cold water. Its okay if the salt doesnt dissolve at this point.Heat the water until the salt dissolves. If you get to where the water is boiling and there is still solid salt, you can add a bit more water.Remove the pan from heat and allow it to cool until its safe to handle.Pour the salt water into a separate container.Now collect the sand.Pour the salt water back into the empty pan.Heat the salt water until the water boils. Continue boiling it until the water is gone and youre left with the salt. Another way you could have separate the saltwater and sand would be to stir up the sand/saltwater and pour it through a coffee filter to capture the sand. Separating Mixture Components Using Melting Point Another method to separate components of a mixture is based on melting point. The melting point of salt is 1474 °F (801 °C), while that of sand is  3110 °F (1710 °C). Salt becomes molten at a lower temperature than sand. To separate the components, a mixture of salt and sand is heated above  801 °C, yet below  1710 °C. The molten salt may be poured off, leaving the sand.  Usually this in not the most practical method of separation because both temperatures are very high. While the collected salt would be pure, some liquid salt would contaminate the sand, like trying to separate sand from water by pouring off water. Notes and Questions Note, you could have simply let the water evaporate from the pan until you were left with the salt. If you had chosen to evaporate the water, one way you could have sped up the process would have been to pour the saltwater into a large, shallow container. The increased surface area would have exchanged the rate at which water vapor could have entered air. The salt did not boil away with the water. This is because the boiling point of salt is much higher than that of water. The difference between boiling points can be used to purify water via distillation. In distillation, the water is boiled, but is then cooled so it will condense from vapor back into water and can be collected. Boiling water separates it from salt and other compounds, like sugar, but it has to be carefully controlled to separate it from chemicals that have lower or similar boiling points. While this technique can be used to separate salt and water or sugar and water, it would not separate the salt and sugar from a mixture of salt, sugar, and water. Can you think of a way to separate sugar and salt? Ready for something more challenging? Try purifying salt from rock salt.

Medieval Roman Catholic Traditions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Medieval Roman Catholic Traditions - Essay Example Among the traditions that were indoctrinated include the establishment of purgatory as a physical place, the usage of Latin in prayer and worship, the Marian practices and the usage of the Rosary, the establishment of the Papacy and its powers, the veneration and canonization of saints, the dogma of transubstantiation, the confession of sin to the priest, the usage of the scapular among many other things.2 These Traditions cannot be traced back to the Bible, but they are accepted by the Catholic Church to be true and infallible. The doctrine of purgatory was introduced by Gregory the Great in 593. He established a connection between earthly penance and purification after death; that is, those who are alive can pray and purify those who are dead and in purgatory. However, only venial sins can be purified when in purgatory, while mortal sins cannot. This belief has remained constant and in its line of thought, the All Souls day was established on the 10th Century where people who are alive remember the dead and celebrate Mass in their honor for their salvation.3 The Papacy was established quite solidly in the 6th Century, around the year 610, by Gregory I and later by Boniface III. The leaders of the Church before 610 did not have supreme authority over all the Christian communities. Most of them were killed together with their congregations, and they spent most of their time debating on theological matters with other bishops. In 709, the kissing of the feet of the Pope was indoctrinated. The infallibility of the Pope was established almost a thousand years late in the 1870’s. The resignation of Pope Benedict XVI is special in that most popes die while in office and it is not common for a Pope to resign (.4 The duration between the last resignation of the Pope and the one in 2013 is almost 600 years. Popes only resign if they are of poor health and unable to offer

Common diseases in Colombia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Common diseases in Colombia - Essay Example   This is followed closely by vector borne diseases especially malaria, dengue and yellow fever. Statistics from CIA and CDC indicate that the most predominant of these diseases affecting both locals and travellers (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014). Risk factorsThe risk factors of this disease are the food and water borne diseases due to contaminated food and water. Personal hygiene and sanitation is not emphasized upon in this nation hence the reason they use contaminated water especially from the Pacific Ocean and their food is contaminated. How it is diagnosed Typhoid whose mortality rate reaches even 20% of those diagnosed is spread through food and water contamination. The sick patient experiences high fever that is not sustainable and tests of the blood cells indicate an increase in the white blood cells. The S. typhi bacteria are also analyzed in the urine test which is carried out after the first week of fever. Typhoid is treated using a dose of strong antibiotics such as levofloxacin which clears up the symptoms. Intravenous hydration and the use of antipyretics can also be employed. This is in addition to ensuring proper nutrition and close medical check-ups to monitor treatment. Education on lifestyle modificationIn order to prevent typhoid, eating of washed food and boiled water is important. Thoroughly cooking food as well as peeling fruits is also necessary. For the travellers, typhoid vaccine is recommended before travelling to this nation in addition to not eating food sold on the streets.

Drug abuse program Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Drug abuse program - Assignment Example In the past two decades, many measures have been taken by the government in order to improve the delivery of health care services particularly with reference to the drug abuse treatment and psychological health improvement in the Los Angeles County. People addicted to substance abuse that also suffer from mental problems are said to have dual diagnosis. Measures have been taken to increase the access of dually diagnosed people to medical care and coordinate the required services for such individuals. To make the system more efficient, it was imperative that the current status of the delivery of service was thoroughly researched. In order to achieve that, a study was conducted in which the administrators and the treatment staff of the programs based on substance abuse and mental health, who served the dually diagnosed patients were involved. A total of 15 administrators and 99 staff members considered the accessibility of the dually diagnosed patients to health care services and the c oordination of health care services much lower in comparison to 10 mental health administrators and 136 staff members, who gave a higher rating on each of the two factors (Grella, Gil-Rivas, and Cooper, 2004). In order to improve the coordination in the delivery of mental health services in substance abuse treatment and mental health improvement programs, the divergence in the concepts of the administrators needs to be lessened first because efficient working of the system requires them to work in close collaboration with one another.

Modification of the 4-Quinolone Scaffold

Modification of the 4-Quinolone Scaffold Discovery: Quinolones are antibacterial agents that are of major importance in the antibacterial field as the can act as the model antibiotic. This is due to their broad range of activity, the high potency and good bioavailability with both intravenous and oral administration possible. This is coupled with high serum levels and a distribution within tissues that specifies concentration levels and results in, theoretically, few occurrences of unwanted side effects.1 The timeline for the development of this class of antibacterial agents begins with the isolation of the bactericidal naphthyridine, nalidixic acid, in the 1960s by George Lesher as the first synthetic quinolone antibiotic. Nalidixic acid is illustrated in Figure 1 below and is a by-product that was isolated from a chloroquine synthesis.2 Figure 1: Nalidixic Acid The clinical use for naldixic acid was to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by gram negative organisms. The successive generations of quinolones had activity against both gram negative and gram positive bacteria as well as anaerobic bacteria. This development lead to fluoroquinolones which are latest in quinolone antimicrobials. The clinical uses for the quinolones today include respiratory tract infections, bacterial meningitis and gastrointestinal infections as well as the historical use of treating UTIs. The development of fluoroquinolones resulted in a more extended spectrum of activity and improved pharmacokinetics then the first generation of quinolones.3,4 Structure: The general quinolone class of molecules is comprised of 4-quinolone and 1,8-napthyridine ring structures. The naphthyridine ring structures differ slightly from the 4-quinolone core due to the presence of two nitrogen atoms in the rings of the molecule (Figure 2). The substituents R5, R6, R7 and R1 were added to improve the activity of the quinolone core before the development of highly potent fluoroquinolones.1 Figure 2: General Structure of 4-Quinolones The first fluoroquinolone to be developed was Flumequine; illustrated in Figure 3. It had a fluoro-group at the 6 position and was the first compound to show that modifications of the quinolone core could results in improved activity against the gram-positive bacteria that nalidixic acid had no effect on.1 Figure 3: The first fluoroquinolone- Flumequine Mechanism of Action: Inhibition of bacterial DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II) and topoisomerase IV is achieved by quinolones. These enzymes play a vital role in the uncoiling of DNA. DNA gyrase acts as the target in gram negative microbes and topoisomerase IV as the target in gram positive microbes for quinolone activity. The widely-accepted mechanism of action is that quinolones bind to complexes, formed between DNA and one of the enzymes, to generate a Quinolone-DNA-Enzyme complex that inhibits DNA replication. The binding of quinolones and topoisomerase is enabled by a water-metal ion bridge. The inhibition is bacteriostatic as replication is reversible.   Eventually apoptosis occurs due to the fragmentation of the DNA ends of the complex. This results in bactericidal inhibition. The most common form of resistance to the quinolones is due to specific mutations in the topoisomerase II and IV that interfere with the water-metal ion bridge interaction.2,3 Development: Quinolones are grouped into generations depending the activity of the molecules. The first generation showed activity against gram negative bacteria that caused UTIs. The second generation showed enhanced activity against gram negative bacteria and improved activity against gram positive. This enabled the list of conditions that quinolones could treat to expand. This generation displayed improved pharmacokinetics; due to the use of a C7-piperdinyl substituent. The third generation provided improvement in efficacy in inhibiting gram positive and anaerobic pathogens. 3,5 The fourth generation of drugs observed dramatically increased activity against DNA gyrase and gram positive microbes, improved pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. The major changes were the addition the fluoro-group at the C-6 position and a ring substituent at C-7. Norfloxacin (1), second generation, was the first broad spectrum quinolone with ciprofloxacin (2) the first quinolone to have activity observed beyond the treatment of UTIs.2 Currently, Garenoxacin (3), fourth generation, is of interest due to its distinct carbon-carbon bond at position C7 and its broad spectrum of activity.3 Figure 4:Generations of quinolone drugs. Three modified quinolone cores have acted as templates for drugs that are on the commercial market. The cores were 4-oxo-1,4-dihydroquinolone (4), 7-oxo-2,3-dihydro-7H-pyrido-[1,2,3-d,e]-1,4-benzoxazine (5) and 4-oxo-1,4-dihydro-[1,8]-naphthyridine (6). These selected cores are illustrated in Figure 5.3 Figure 5: Cores used as templates for commercial drugs Retrosynthesis: Scheme 1: Retrosynthesis of 4-Quinolone core6 A carbon-carbon disconnection between the ketone and the aromatic ring, the reverse would be a Friedel-Crafts reaction.   The double bond is opened and the hydroxyl group that is added is converted to a carbonyl group. The final disconnection, N-C, results in the starting materials; a keto ester and the substituted aniline. Synthesis: Several synthetic approaches have been taken to generate the 4-quinolone core. The Gerster-Hayakwa and Chu-Mitscher reactions are used specifically for the synthesis of the drug Levofloxacin. The Chu-Li route was established primarily for 9-cyclopropylpyrimidinones. The Gould-Jacobs reaction, Grohe-Heitzer cycloacylation and Conrad-Limpach-Knorr are appropriate methods of synthesising the generic 4-quinolone core.3 The Conrad-Limpach-Knorr synthesis will generate quinolones but this reaction will give different products depending of the whether it is kinetically or thermodynamically controlled. Aniline and 3-keto ester are mixed and at room temp the keto group joins the nitrogen of the aniline giving an enamino ester (kinetic product) and cyclisation at 250 °C results in a 4-quinolone. Thermodynamically controlling this reaction, by carrying it out at 140 °C, results in an amido-ketone dominating regardless of the less reactive ester on the keto ester being the centre of the first nucleophile attack. Ring closure results in a 2-quinolone.7 Scheme 2: Conrad-Limpach-Knorr Synthesis (kinetically controlled) As the substrate for the cyclisation needs to be the high-energy tautomer and cyclisation causes loss of aromaticity in the ring, solvents with high boiling points are generally used in this synthesis.8 The reactions are encouraged by electron-donating substituents in the aromatic ring including methoxy or amino groups. These give increased yields in the condensation and ring closure steps. A CF3 group can act as an acceptor at C-4.9 The short reaction sequence limits possibility of loss of yield. Rational Drug Design: Illustrated in Scheme 3 is the process of rational drug design. Computational screening is used to identify the target and generate the lead compound. This is modified considering the biological aspects, the 3D structure, the QSAR and reactivity of the compound. This generates a new lead which is optimised and put forward for preclinical trial. Scheme 3: Rational Drug Design Process10 Nilsen et al. used endochin as a lead for optimisation in a rational drug design study. The target selected was the multiple stages of the life cycle of malaria. Endochin is potent against malaria but is not active in vivo due to rapid and extensive metabolisation. Optimisation was required to form endochin-like quinolones (ELQ) that retained the activity of endochin but were biologically active. The aims for optimisation was to improve metabolic stability and aqueous solubility as well as eradicate cross-resistance.11 Figure 6: Structural Representation of Endochin The EQLs were synthesised by converting the quinolones to quinolines, followed by nucleophilic displacement. The quinoline undergoes Suzuki-Miyaura coupling with a boronic ester and finally the protecting group is removed (Scheme 4 A). An OCF3 group was also added to the side chain for further optimisation (Scheme 4 B). Scheme 4: Synthesis of ELQ An orally active class of quinolones were synthesised; 4(1H)-quinolone-3-diarylethers. The initial lead, ELQ-233 (Figure 7: ELQ-233Figure 7), displayed low nano-molar IC50 values. The optimisation step was to introduce an aryl group at C-3. A lipophilic diphenylether side chain was used as it had been previously reported as integral in other antimalarial drugs. This was to work with the methyl group at C-2 to cause out of plane movement of the sterically large aromatic ring, altering the à Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ãƒ Ã¢â€š ¬ stacking from the numerous H-bonds. This variation would not be perused as ELQ-233 was equipotent to endochin. Figure 7: ELQ-233 Due to the success of adding a fluoro group to the quinolone, to further build on the optimisation of endochin, a fluorine was added at C-6 on a second optimised molecule (7) along with a methoxy group at C-7 (as is in the endochin structure); illustrated in Figure 8.11 The methoxy group is a useful substituent due to its lipophilic and hydrophilic components in close proximity. Figure 8: Illustration of Compound 7 However, both ELQ-233 and 7 were metabolically unstable and therefore did not fulfil the optimisation requirements. Table 1: Values obtained for the optimised molecules Compound cLogP EC50 (nm) Endochin 3.35 3.8 ELQ-233 3.70 8.4 7 3.73 40 8 5.66 2.2 Further derivatives were generated and the pattern that emerged indicated that the substitution pattern on the aromatic ring influenced the reactivity with malaria. This result led to the rational design of further ELQ derivatives. Straight-forward reactions were continued to be used. The boronic ester with a varying diarylether side chain undergoes palladium mediated coupling with the quinolone then a demethylation occurs using hydrobromic acid to give the desired product. Repositioning the OCF3 group to the side chain increased the efficacy and the metabolic stability. The compounds that was found to be metabolically stable and potent had a chloro-group at C-6 and OCH3 ­at C-7. Figure 9: Structural representation of compound 8 Although compound 8 was the most potent compound, the high logP value is a disadvantage as it does not follow Lipinskis Rule of Five which is the basis for most developed drugs. To improve solubility and allow for lower dosages of 8, bioisoteres of the side chain were employed. The OCF3 was replaced by CF, Cl and F by Nielson et al. and displayed subnanomolar activity. Other options would be to double the terminal OCF3 group, double the substituents on the diaryl side chain, convert the diphenyl ether side chain to a dipyridine ether side chain or replace a phenyl ring in the side chain with a cyclopropane group. Phenyl rings can be replaced by a heteroaromatic ring or a saturated ring to improve efficacy, lipophilicity and specificity of binding. The introduction of a pyridine ring should reduce the metabolism of the phenyl ring and toxicity of metabolites.12 In heterocycles, metabolism can be more complicated with hetero-atoms being oxidized and/or ring opening reactions possible- slowing metabolism. Cyclopropane was explored as derivative of the phenyl ring resulting in compounds with reduced molecular weights and lower lipophilicities. It also limits the conformations available and increase yields of ELQs.11 Scheme 5 below are the same coupling reactions that are stated by Nielson et al. but with the suggested changes to further improve the lea d. Caution must be taken when adding substituents to the side chain so that Lipinskis rule of five is obeyed; there must be no more than 5 hydrogen bond donors or 10 hydrogen bond acceptors and the molecule should be below 500 Da. Scheme 5: Suggested further optimised lead molecules Rational drug design is an advantageous modification method as it is a streamline process when compared with SAR or QSAR as there is no trial and error, all leads and derivatives are prepared having been predicted by computational means previously. The computational aspect allows for all compounds and potential targets to be envisaged in 3D before they are synthesized. This computed information is then stored on large databases which can assist future drug development work. Rational drug design can be an expensive technique as a specialized team is required with knowledge in biology, chemistry and computer science. Costs rise due to payment of wages for the team and the specialized equipment and computer software that is vital. Although the computational aspect of this method is beneficial it can also be a disadvantage as not all predicted compounds can be synthesized and if the compounds are synthesized they may not act as predicted when in vivo.   Specifically, in this ratio nal drug design study, the reactions utilised readily available reagents that were also inexpensive. They were straight-forward reactions that gave high yields and could be scaled up. These are vital as the cost of antimalarial drugs must be kept down so that all people can afford to access it.11 Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR): SAR studies examine how the structure of the molecule effects the activity. SAR considers structural characteristics and relates them the activity therefore it is necessary to have a well characterized database to compared the results against. The basic principle of SAR, that structure determines properties and reactivities in a biological system, is of importance when determining toxicological properties. This is of huge significance for quinolone development as they must be nontoxic in vivo while remaining bacteriosidal.13 Figure 10: Areas SAR Studies consider13 These studies examine which modifications are possible to the core ( Figure 11) and which substituents cannot be modified without negatively interfering with the activity and potency of the drug.   There can be qualitative and quantitative aspects to these studies. The quantitative considerations are part of a quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) which will be discussed later. Figure 11: Quinolone core positions for the SAR study Table 2: Important Positons on the Quinolone core-SAR Study results14 Position Influence On: Preferred substituent: Effect of substituent: 1 The pharmacokinetics and has control on overall potency. Cyclopropyl increase activity against gram negative microbes 5 Activity against gram-positive bacteria. NH2 and CH3 moiety improve activity against gram-positive bacteria 7 Spectrum of activity and pharmacokinetics. 5/6 membered N heterocycle (aminopyrrolidines and piperazines) Alkyl group Aminopyrrolidines: increase activity against gram-positive bacteria Piperazines: increase activity against gram-negative bacteria. Alkyl: enhance gram- positive potency and lengthen the serum half-life 8 Pharmacokinetics and specific activity on anaerobes. CF, CCl and COMe improve activity against anaerobic bacteria. alter specific interaction of the agent in vivo. SAR studies reveal that a hydrogen at R2 is preferred. Any larger moiety would likely cause steric hindrance with the adjacent carboxyl group at C-3 and the oxygen at C-4. These substituents are vital for activity as these positions are where binding to DNA bases occur before the sites are made available for other hydrogen bonding to proceed by DNA gyrase. A small molecule is best for potency at R6. This is usually a fluorine group in later generations of quinolones as it produces molecules of between 5 to 100 times greater potency that when a hydrogen is positioned at R6.14 Ciprofloxacin (Figure 12) is one of the original patented quinolone anti-bacterial agents. It is first generation as it has moderate activity towards gram negative bacteria, poor pharmacokinetics and poor bioavailability. Figure 12: Structural representation of Ciprofloxacin However, using the results of the SAR, Ciprofloxacin can be further optimized. Scheme 6 utilizes straight-forward reactions to attach an -NH2 moiety to the core at positon 5 where the SAR study indicates it has the greatest influence. Firstly, nitration of the aromatic ring occurs, followed by a reduction of the nitro group to an aniline with palladium on carbon. Scheme 6: Further optimisation based on SAR Study Results The new lead is still in agreement with the SAR results as the carboxyl and oxygen are present at C-3 and C-4 respectively. The preferred substituent as stated in Table 2 are also used throughout the reaction scheme; the piperazine is at position 7, the fluoro group at positon 6 and the cyclopropyl group at positon 1. These substituents can positively influence the spectrum of activity the potency and the overall pharmacokinetics of the molecule. The addition of extra hydrogen bond acceptors/donors must be limited so as not to disobey Lipinskis rule of five by having more than 5 hydrogen bond donors or 10 hydrogen bond acceptors. These reactions, like the rational drug design reactions, utilize readily available, generally inexpensive reagents which is important to keep the cost of the anti-malarial drug down. Palladium is an exception as it is a rare metal but cheaper alternatives could be used for this step such as Raney Nickel although this generates intermediates before the aniline is formed unlike the direct formation when the palladium catalyst is used.15 SAR studies can represent molecules as 2D, atoms and bonds, or 3D, steric effects and electrostatics. 3D is best for when the receipt-mediated mechanism is known. Successful SAR studies also need appropriate methods of analysis which depend on whether quantitative or qualitative analysis is being perused and if the mechanism is known. The ideal SAR model should have adequate molecules for fair statistical analysis, a wide range of activities and an even distribution of molecules in each compound class. This model is rarely found when toxicology is considered.13 Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR): The basic principle of QSAR is that similar molecules have adequate similar mechanistic elements so that a common rate-determining step is shared among them and that they have comparable energy requirements for activity. This principle is taken further and the assumption is that differences in reaction rates results in differences in activity or potency.13 Lipophilic, electronic and steric effects are considered in QSAR studies. QSAR provides an equation that quantifies the SAR and allows for predictions about which property has an important role in the distribution/ mechanism of the drug. Predictions cut down on the volume of analogues to be synthesised. Equations are only applicable to compounds of the same structural class. Outliers indicate when a feature is important and can produce new leads. The QSAR may not give accurate predictions as the parameters have covariance on each other; the predicted model may vary in vivo.6 Lipophilicity/Hydrophobicity: This can be considered as the lipophilicity of the molecule or the lipophilicity of the substituents attached. Partition Coefficient, P, is the parameter associated with the lipophilicity of the molecule and is measured by Equation 1. Equation 1: Representation of the lipophilicity parameter. Solvents chosen to represent the Central nervous system The activity of a molecule can be related to the P value as a molecule must be able to cross membranes and be transported through the body to its target site which is dependent on its lipophilicity. Varying substituents on the core can alter the P value in whichever direction is more beneficial for the activity of the molecule. From SAR studies increased quinolone activity occurs when a lipophilic substituent, such as a halogen, is attached at C-6. Simple reactions, including nitration and chlorination (Scheme 7), will add these substituents to the core, again using cheap and readily available reagents. In general, increasing lead hydrophobicity increases activity (Figure 13). This does not go to infinity as there is a point at which the lead is to hydrophobic to be transported in vivo.6 LogP should not be more than 5 per Lipinskis rule of 5; high enough to bind, low enough to be released. Scheme 7: Addition of lipophilic substituents to the quinolone core to alter the P value Figure 13: Linear relationship between biological activity 1/C and lipophilicity6 Electronics: This parameter can influence ionisation and polarity which alters how a drug passes through a membrane or how strongly it binds to a receptor. Hammett substitution constant (à Ã†â€™) is the measure of the electron withdrawing or donating ability for substituents on an aromatic ring. à Ã†â€™ affects the equilibrium and the value is dependent on induction/resonance effects and whether the substituent is para or meta directing. Ortho is not considered due to sterics.6 Table 3:Substituents that can alter the à Ã†â€™ parameter Electron Donating Group (para): Electron Withdrawing Group (meta): -NH2 -NO2 -OH -CONH2 Halogen -CN Generally, electron-withdrawing substituent, positive à Ã†â€™ values, increase activity (Table 3). Simple reactions like those illustrated in Scheme 7 are used to attach the à Ã†â€™-influencing substituents to the quinolone. Sterics: Drug molecules must approach and successfully bind to a receptor and the sterics of the molecule can alter this approach. Bulk can result in nonbinding as the drug is sterically hindered from approaching the target site. It can also limit the available conformations so that only the most efficient arrangement binds to the receptor. Table 4: Parameters for measurements of steric effects6 Measure of Steric Effect: Key Feature: Other Factors: Tafts Steric Factor (Es) Quantifies steric feature of substituents Limited to use on certain substituents Molar Refractivity (MR) Measures volume occupied by atom(s) Corrects for ease of polarisation. Verloop Steric Parameter Computer programme calculates steric values For use with any substituent Using the quinolone core, modifications can be made so that the sterics prevent rapid metabolisation of a drug molecule in vivo which will extend its half-life and lead to better activity. Binding the quinolone to a large side chain restricts it from binding to smaller sites which Nilsen et al. conclude lead to better selectivity.11 Scheme 8 illustrates the addition of bulky side chains that can give better selectivity as they will only approach the sites they fit into. Furthermore, the double bond linkage and aromatic rings restrict the conformation that the molecule can adopt, increasing selectivity. Bulky side chains can prevent rapid metabolism occurring. When adding bulk, caution must be taken to ensure the molecule stays below the recommended 500 Da. Scheme 8: Reactions to alter the sterics of a quinolone core16 3D-QSAR: 3D-QSAR considers the relative spatial arrangement of model compounds and aims to correlate the features across molecules that affect activity and are required for ligand binding. 3D-QSAR studies the geometry, pharmacophore and molecular field. Key assumptions of 3D-QSAR13: The model compound and not its metabolite cause the biological response. The studied conformation is bioactive. Solvent effects are not considered The system is in equilibrium All compounds bind in the same manner to the one target. 3D-QSAR puts compounds with common configurations in a 3D grid, calculates the interaction and tabulates the results. An equation is then created based on the relationship between the calculations and the reported values. This verifies QSAR results. Conformers are superimposed to display the common ligand-binding orientation to the receptor. Probe atoms calculate steric and electrostatic fields.13 3D-QSAR studies on 1,3,5-triazine, quinolone derivatives, determined less bulky groups on the heteroatom ring, more bulk on the aro